Surya Subedi | University of Leeds (original) (raw)
Papers by Surya Subedi
Journal of Conflict and Security Law
The need to respond to the unfolding situation of mass atrocity crimes has become the subject of ... more The need to respond to the unfolding situation of mass atrocity crimes has become the subject of a longstanding discussion in international law, with no success in reaching an agreement on the legal status of such a right to respond. The use of coercive measures to protect endangered people remains one of the most challenging aspects of contemporary international law. Responsibility to Protect (R2P) was introduced to respond to the grave cases of massacres, but this notion has remained more in the realm of political rhetoric rather than in international law. However, the notion of R2P was invoked by the states leading international intervention in Libya. This article aims to present a critique of the application and interpretation of R2P as a normative framework, with a focus on the complementary responsibility of the international community in the face of the humanitarian crisis in Libya and the way military intervention was carried out. Drawing on the lessons learnt from the international intervention in Libya, this article provides an assessment of the UN resolutions that authorised the military intervention in Libya and the conduct of the coalition partners prior to, during and in the aftermath of the intervention and suggests the manner in which this normative framework could be developed to help the international community to shoulder its responsibility for the protection of people, without undermining the core of international legal framework in the future. I. Introduction: Under the evolving notion of Responsibility to Protect (R2P) 1 the international community has a duty to respond to cases of international crimes, namely genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity, to protect people against those cruelties that occur in the throes of war. This grounds R2P in the field of International Criminal Law (ICL). 2 The 2005 Outcome Document,
Netherlands International Law Review
With growth in foreign investment and in the number of companies investing in foreign countries, ... more With growth in foreign investment and in the number of companies investing in foreign countries, the application of general principles of public international law has not been deemed adequate to regulate foreign investment and there is, as yet, no comprehensive international treaty on the regulation of foreign investment. Consequently, states have resorted to bilateral investment treaties (BITs), regional trade and international investment agreements (IIAs) and free trade agreements to supplement and complement the regime of protection for foreign investors. In the absence of an international investment court, states hosting foreign investment or investor states have opted for investor-state dispute settlement mechanism (ISDS). This mechanism has brought about its own challenges to the international law of foreign investment due to inconsistency in the application and interpretation of the key principles of international investment law by such arbitration tribunals, and further, there is no appellate mechanism to bring about some cohesion and consistency in jurisprudence. Therefore, there are various proposals mooted by scholars to address these challenges and they range from tweaks to BITs and IIAs, the creation of an appellate mechanism and the negotiation of a multilateral treaty to proposals for reform of ISDS only. After assessing the merits and demerits of such proposals, this study goes further, arguing for the creation of a World Investment Organisation with a standing mechanism for settlement of investment disputes in order to ensure legal certainty, predictability and the promotion of the flow of foreign investment in a sustainable and responsible manner.
Http Dx Doi Org 10 1080 13572339808420577, Nov 16, 2007
Iss Working Paper Series General Series, Feb 1, 1995
British Year Book of International Law, 2003
Since 1985, the Law School at the University of Hull has hosted an annual lecture – the Josephine... more Since 1985, the Law School at the University of Hull has hosted an annual lecture – the Josephine Onoh Memorial Lecture – given by a distinguished international lawyer. These annual lectures are funded by the Josephine Onoh Memorial Fund, established in 1984 by the family and friends of Josephine Onoh who was tragically killed in an air crash at Enugu, Nigeria, in November 1983. Josephine was a Hull law graduate, and at the time of her death was registered at the University for a research degree in the field of international law. This book contains a collection of these annual lectures. The first lecture in 1985 was given by the late Judge Taslim Elias, at that time President of the International Court of Justice. Subsequent lectures have been given by both leading practitioners and professors of international law, including Sir Robert Jennings, Bin Cheng, Sir Ian Sinclair, Philip Allott, Henry Schermers, Lord Mackenzie-Stuart, Alexandre-Charles Kiss, Dame Rosalyn Higgins, Peter Sand, Ian Brownlie, Christopher Greenwood, Marti Koskenniemi, and Ralph Zacklin. The lectures reflect some of the most significant international concerns of the last two decades. The subjects they address include new trends in international law, international courts and politics, the practitioner's view of international law, international law and revolution, the European Convention of Human Rights, European Community law concepts, the global environment and international law, the current role of the United Nations, international environmental trust funds, international boundary law, international law and imperialism, and humanitarian intervention. This important collection of essays by some of the leading international law figures of our generation will be of equal value to all interested in international law, whether the academic or the practitioner.
This fifth volume in the Permanent Court of Arbitration/Peace Palace Papers series reproduces the... more This fifth volume in the Permanent Court of Arbitration/Peace Palace Papers series reproduces the work of the 6th International Law Seminar held at the Peace Palace on November 8, 2002. The Seminar's distinguished panelists and participants focused on the settlement of international disputes over that most essential of natural resources water. They explored a range of questions: Which settlement mechanisms are most promising in the field of transboundary freshwater disputes? Is adjudication a suitable method of apportioning water rights which are vital not only to human life, but to the agriculture and industry of every nation on the planet? Given the need for "win-win" solutions to most water disputes, are negotiation and regional cooperation the only realistic and viable methods for settling them? What is the potential role of conciliation, mediation, good offices and other ad hoc mechanisms? This volume also contains the 1997 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses, a multilateral framework treaty dealing with transboundary freshwater, which provides a variety of tools (such as the submission of disputes to fact-finding commissions) for the peaceful resolution of water disputes.
After the debacle in Seattle in December 1999, the Fourth Ministerial Conference of WTO members t... more After the debacle in Seattle in December 1999, the Fourth Ministerial Conference of WTO members took place successfully under tight security in the capital city, Doha, of the small Arabian state of Qatar in November 2001. The Doha conference did not adopt any new treaty or protocoll to add to the network of WTO agreements already in place. It did, however, approve a ‘broad and balance ’ work programme in the form of two declarations—a main declaration and one on trade related intellectual property rights (TRIPS) and public health, plus a decision on implementation designed to alleviate the difficulties of developing countries in implementing the existing WTO agreements. In other words, the Doha conference agreed on the nature and scope of the next round of trade negttiations, named as the ‘Development Round’. Although some least-developed countries had argued that ‘no new round should be started until there has been full implementation of the agreements concluded in the last Round, and an evaluation of their effects done’, the Doha Conference decided to start a new round of trade negotiations. How development oriented is the agenda of the new round of trade negotiations? What is going to be negotiated during th e negotiations? Is it indeed going to be a ‘Development Round’ in more than name? The object of this article is to analyse the background to the Doha conference, to assess the nature of negotiations at the conference and to evaluate its outcome.
After an uneasy pause during the height of the Cold War, several efforts have been made in the re... more After an uneasy pause during the height of the Cold War, several efforts have been made in the recent past to establish nuclear-weapon-free (NWFZs) or nuclear-free zones (NFZs) in certain parts of the globe. In the events leading up to the end of the Cold War and in the aftermath of this costly and dangerous War, there has been a realisation that the security of humankind lies in the economic and environmental security rather than military security.
American Journal of International Law, 1999
... the Nepal Treaty Act, see 3 RECENT LAWS OF NEPAL, pt. 3, at 6 (Dhruba Bar Singh Thapa ed., 19... more ... the Nepal Treaty Act, see 3 RECENT LAWS OF NEPAL, pt. 3, at 6 (Dhruba Bar Singh Thapa ed., 1991). ... 7, 1997, at 3. See also the views of a Nepalese lawmaker, Khanal, id., Dec. 30, 1997, at 1. Page 6. 958 THE AMERICANJOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL LAW [Vol. 93 ...
This article is based on a paper presented by the author at a seminar on ‘The Function of Law in ... more This article is based on a paper presented by the author at a seminar on ‘The Function of Law in the International Community’ organised by the Faculties of Law and Social Sciences of the University of Oxford in May 1994 at All Souls College, Oxford. The author is indebted to the participants in the seminar, and especially to its Convenor, Prof. Adam Roberts, Montague Burton Professor of International Relations at the University of Oxford, for their very useful comments.
THE WTO DISPUTE settlement mechanism (DSM) is a novelty in international law in so many respects.... more THE WTO DISPUTE settlement mechanism (DSM) is a novelty in international law in so many respects. Although it is an improve-ment on the old GATT dispute settlement mechanism, it is quite different in nature from other international mechanisms available for resolving international disputes between States. Unlike other mecha-nisms, the rules and procedures of this mechanism, especially the provi-sions relating to the appellate body, follow the principles of common law rather than civil law. This mechanism is a blend of diplomacy, negotiation, mediation, arbitration and adjudication. It is neither fully judicial nor completely a non-judicial mechanism.
... Constitutional Accommodation of Ethnicity and National Identity in Nepal DR. SURYA P. SUBEDI ... more ... Constitutional Accommodation of Ethnicity and National Identity in Nepal DR. SURYA P. SUBEDI Reader in Law, Law School, University of Hull, UK Abstract: This article examines how ethnicity and national identity have been constitutionally accommodated in Nepal. ...
Thanks to the commitment on the part of the national actors, the work of the civil society organi... more Thanks to the commitment on the part of the national actors, the work of the civil society organisations, international support and the work of the UN special rapporteurs for the country, Cambodia has made encouraging progress in promoting and protecting human rights in the country, but still has a long way to go to meet the international benchmark in this regard. Thus, the UN human rights mandate in Cambodia is still very much relevant as there is still a job to do. Without a meaningful dialogue with the government it is difficult to make a difference to the lives of the people of Cambodia. As expected by the Human Rights Council, the approach of the current special rapporteur has been a constructive one in his dealings with the government. As an international lawyer, he has regarded that the central element of his work should be to ensure that the Cambodian Government is doing everything possible in order to enable the people of Cambodia to enjoy the rights embodied in the international human rights treaties ratified by the country.
In recognising the significant role international law can play in supporting the objectives of ju... more In recognising the significant role international law can play in supporting the objectives of justice and sustainable development, Global Justice and Sustainable Development provides a wide-ranging analysis of some of the most fundamental challenges facing global society. In particular, the volume seeks to consider the synergies between sustainable development and global justice – two notions that are simultaneously hugely important and, in equal measure, enormously contentious within both international law and international relations. Organized in a three-part structure, Global Justice and Sustainable Development revisits some of the basic assumptions on which the general principles are built, considers the implications for differing aspects of international law, and focuses on national and regional approaches.
This text addresses a question in contemporary international economies: the design, structure and... more This text addresses a question in contemporary international economies: the design, structure and content of the legal and institutional framework within an increasingly globalized civil society and market economy. It is based on the belief that liberalized global markets cannot be expected to provide the public goods required to secure the acquis communautaire for human rights worldwide, let alone to extend those rights to peoples hitherto deprived of their benefits. Scholars from Europe, America, Asia and Australia examine a variety of aspects of relevant state practice. They combine "international social critique" of state practice with ideas for "social engineering", offering critical legal analysis and ideas about policy options for setting standards to induce legal change and development.
The institution of UN special rapporteurs has been described as the “crown jewel” of the UN human... more The institution of UN special rapporteurs has been described as the “crown jewel” of the UN human rights system. Indeed, the appointment of such rapporteurs represents an attempt by the United Nations “to pierce the veil of the national sovereignty” of states to handle serious cases of violations of human rights worldwide. However, this institution has come under pressure from those states with a poor record of human rights in the recent past. The forthcoming review of the work and status of the Human Rights Council by the General Assembly should be of value to this institution and make it stronger.
The concept of ‘sustainable development’ has attracted considerable attention in recent years and... more The concept of ‘sustainable development’ has attracted considerable attention in recent years and has become of pivotal importance, not only in scientific and political discourse but also, increasingly, in the practice of states and of relevant international organisations. Since 1992 and within a remarkably short period of time, sustainable development has been endorsed and recognised in a number of instruments of international law. Thus, it is incorporated in various environmental treaties as well as in international fisheries agreements, the 1995 Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organisation (WTO) and EU law. Sustainable development and related concepts also feature in a number of international judicial decisions of the 1990s, for example those of the International Court of Justice and the WTO Appellate Body. The chapters assembled in this book illustrate various aspects of efforts of policy makers, regional and national interest groups to invoke and rely upon international law for the realisation of the objective of sustainable development. They deal in particular with recent examples of the practice of states and of relevant international organisations, especially in such areas as international trade, foreign investment regulation, human rights and natural resources and waste management. Furthermore, some chapters are dedicated to a review of relevant practice at the regional and national level.
Journal of Conflict and Security Law
The need to respond to the unfolding situation of mass atrocity crimes has become the subject of ... more The need to respond to the unfolding situation of mass atrocity crimes has become the subject of a longstanding discussion in international law, with no success in reaching an agreement on the legal status of such a right to respond. The use of coercive measures to protect endangered people remains one of the most challenging aspects of contemporary international law. Responsibility to Protect (R2P) was introduced to respond to the grave cases of massacres, but this notion has remained more in the realm of political rhetoric rather than in international law. However, the notion of R2P was invoked by the states leading international intervention in Libya. This article aims to present a critique of the application and interpretation of R2P as a normative framework, with a focus on the complementary responsibility of the international community in the face of the humanitarian crisis in Libya and the way military intervention was carried out. Drawing on the lessons learnt from the international intervention in Libya, this article provides an assessment of the UN resolutions that authorised the military intervention in Libya and the conduct of the coalition partners prior to, during and in the aftermath of the intervention and suggests the manner in which this normative framework could be developed to help the international community to shoulder its responsibility for the protection of people, without undermining the core of international legal framework in the future. I. Introduction: Under the evolving notion of Responsibility to Protect (R2P) 1 the international community has a duty to respond to cases of international crimes, namely genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity, to protect people against those cruelties that occur in the throes of war. This grounds R2P in the field of International Criminal Law (ICL). 2 The 2005 Outcome Document,
Netherlands International Law Review
With growth in foreign investment and in the number of companies investing in foreign countries, ... more With growth in foreign investment and in the number of companies investing in foreign countries, the application of general principles of public international law has not been deemed adequate to regulate foreign investment and there is, as yet, no comprehensive international treaty on the regulation of foreign investment. Consequently, states have resorted to bilateral investment treaties (BITs), regional trade and international investment agreements (IIAs) and free trade agreements to supplement and complement the regime of protection for foreign investors. In the absence of an international investment court, states hosting foreign investment or investor states have opted for investor-state dispute settlement mechanism (ISDS). This mechanism has brought about its own challenges to the international law of foreign investment due to inconsistency in the application and interpretation of the key principles of international investment law by such arbitration tribunals, and further, there is no appellate mechanism to bring about some cohesion and consistency in jurisprudence. Therefore, there are various proposals mooted by scholars to address these challenges and they range from tweaks to BITs and IIAs, the creation of an appellate mechanism and the negotiation of a multilateral treaty to proposals for reform of ISDS only. After assessing the merits and demerits of such proposals, this study goes further, arguing for the creation of a World Investment Organisation with a standing mechanism for settlement of investment disputes in order to ensure legal certainty, predictability and the promotion of the flow of foreign investment in a sustainable and responsible manner.
Http Dx Doi Org 10 1080 13572339808420577, Nov 16, 2007
Iss Working Paper Series General Series, Feb 1, 1995
British Year Book of International Law, 2003
Since 1985, the Law School at the University of Hull has hosted an annual lecture – the Josephine... more Since 1985, the Law School at the University of Hull has hosted an annual lecture – the Josephine Onoh Memorial Lecture – given by a distinguished international lawyer. These annual lectures are funded by the Josephine Onoh Memorial Fund, established in 1984 by the family and friends of Josephine Onoh who was tragically killed in an air crash at Enugu, Nigeria, in November 1983. Josephine was a Hull law graduate, and at the time of her death was registered at the University for a research degree in the field of international law. This book contains a collection of these annual lectures. The first lecture in 1985 was given by the late Judge Taslim Elias, at that time President of the International Court of Justice. Subsequent lectures have been given by both leading practitioners and professors of international law, including Sir Robert Jennings, Bin Cheng, Sir Ian Sinclair, Philip Allott, Henry Schermers, Lord Mackenzie-Stuart, Alexandre-Charles Kiss, Dame Rosalyn Higgins, Peter Sand, Ian Brownlie, Christopher Greenwood, Marti Koskenniemi, and Ralph Zacklin. The lectures reflect some of the most significant international concerns of the last two decades. The subjects they address include new trends in international law, international courts and politics, the practitioner's view of international law, international law and revolution, the European Convention of Human Rights, European Community law concepts, the global environment and international law, the current role of the United Nations, international environmental trust funds, international boundary law, international law and imperialism, and humanitarian intervention. This important collection of essays by some of the leading international law figures of our generation will be of equal value to all interested in international law, whether the academic or the practitioner.
This fifth volume in the Permanent Court of Arbitration/Peace Palace Papers series reproduces the... more This fifth volume in the Permanent Court of Arbitration/Peace Palace Papers series reproduces the work of the 6th International Law Seminar held at the Peace Palace on November 8, 2002. The Seminar's distinguished panelists and participants focused on the settlement of international disputes over that most essential of natural resources water. They explored a range of questions: Which settlement mechanisms are most promising in the field of transboundary freshwater disputes? Is adjudication a suitable method of apportioning water rights which are vital not only to human life, but to the agriculture and industry of every nation on the planet? Given the need for "win-win" solutions to most water disputes, are negotiation and regional cooperation the only realistic and viable methods for settling them? What is the potential role of conciliation, mediation, good offices and other ad hoc mechanisms? This volume also contains the 1997 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses, a multilateral framework treaty dealing with transboundary freshwater, which provides a variety of tools (such as the submission of disputes to fact-finding commissions) for the peaceful resolution of water disputes.
After the debacle in Seattle in December 1999, the Fourth Ministerial Conference of WTO members t... more After the debacle in Seattle in December 1999, the Fourth Ministerial Conference of WTO members took place successfully under tight security in the capital city, Doha, of the small Arabian state of Qatar in November 2001. The Doha conference did not adopt any new treaty or protocoll to add to the network of WTO agreements already in place. It did, however, approve a ‘broad and balance ’ work programme in the form of two declarations—a main declaration and one on trade related intellectual property rights (TRIPS) and public health, plus a decision on implementation designed to alleviate the difficulties of developing countries in implementing the existing WTO agreements. In other words, the Doha conference agreed on the nature and scope of the next round of trade negttiations, named as the ‘Development Round’. Although some least-developed countries had argued that ‘no new round should be started until there has been full implementation of the agreements concluded in the last Round, and an evaluation of their effects done’, the Doha Conference decided to start a new round of trade negotiations. How development oriented is the agenda of the new round of trade negotiations? What is going to be negotiated during th e negotiations? Is it indeed going to be a ‘Development Round’ in more than name? The object of this article is to analyse the background to the Doha conference, to assess the nature of negotiations at the conference and to evaluate its outcome.
After an uneasy pause during the height of the Cold War, several efforts have been made in the re... more After an uneasy pause during the height of the Cold War, several efforts have been made in the recent past to establish nuclear-weapon-free (NWFZs) or nuclear-free zones (NFZs) in certain parts of the globe. In the events leading up to the end of the Cold War and in the aftermath of this costly and dangerous War, there has been a realisation that the security of humankind lies in the economic and environmental security rather than military security.
American Journal of International Law, 1999
... the Nepal Treaty Act, see 3 RECENT LAWS OF NEPAL, pt. 3, at 6 (Dhruba Bar Singh Thapa ed., 19... more ... the Nepal Treaty Act, see 3 RECENT LAWS OF NEPAL, pt. 3, at 6 (Dhruba Bar Singh Thapa ed., 1991). ... 7, 1997, at 3. See also the views of a Nepalese lawmaker, Khanal, id., Dec. 30, 1997, at 1. Page 6. 958 THE AMERICANJOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL LAW [Vol. 93 ...
This article is based on a paper presented by the author at a seminar on ‘The Function of Law in ... more This article is based on a paper presented by the author at a seminar on ‘The Function of Law in the International Community’ organised by the Faculties of Law and Social Sciences of the University of Oxford in May 1994 at All Souls College, Oxford. The author is indebted to the participants in the seminar, and especially to its Convenor, Prof. Adam Roberts, Montague Burton Professor of International Relations at the University of Oxford, for their very useful comments.
THE WTO DISPUTE settlement mechanism (DSM) is a novelty in international law in so many respects.... more THE WTO DISPUTE settlement mechanism (DSM) is a novelty in international law in so many respects. Although it is an improve-ment on the old GATT dispute settlement mechanism, it is quite different in nature from other international mechanisms available for resolving international disputes between States. Unlike other mecha-nisms, the rules and procedures of this mechanism, especially the provi-sions relating to the appellate body, follow the principles of common law rather than civil law. This mechanism is a blend of diplomacy, negotiation, mediation, arbitration and adjudication. It is neither fully judicial nor completely a non-judicial mechanism.
... Constitutional Accommodation of Ethnicity and National Identity in Nepal DR. SURYA P. SUBEDI ... more ... Constitutional Accommodation of Ethnicity and National Identity in Nepal DR. SURYA P. SUBEDI Reader in Law, Law School, University of Hull, UK Abstract: This article examines how ethnicity and national identity have been constitutionally accommodated in Nepal. ...
Thanks to the commitment on the part of the national actors, the work of the civil society organi... more Thanks to the commitment on the part of the national actors, the work of the civil society organisations, international support and the work of the UN special rapporteurs for the country, Cambodia has made encouraging progress in promoting and protecting human rights in the country, but still has a long way to go to meet the international benchmark in this regard. Thus, the UN human rights mandate in Cambodia is still very much relevant as there is still a job to do. Without a meaningful dialogue with the government it is difficult to make a difference to the lives of the people of Cambodia. As expected by the Human Rights Council, the approach of the current special rapporteur has been a constructive one in his dealings with the government. As an international lawyer, he has regarded that the central element of his work should be to ensure that the Cambodian Government is doing everything possible in order to enable the people of Cambodia to enjoy the rights embodied in the international human rights treaties ratified by the country.
In recognising the significant role international law can play in supporting the objectives of ju... more In recognising the significant role international law can play in supporting the objectives of justice and sustainable development, Global Justice and Sustainable Development provides a wide-ranging analysis of some of the most fundamental challenges facing global society. In particular, the volume seeks to consider the synergies between sustainable development and global justice – two notions that are simultaneously hugely important and, in equal measure, enormously contentious within both international law and international relations. Organized in a three-part structure, Global Justice and Sustainable Development revisits some of the basic assumptions on which the general principles are built, considers the implications for differing aspects of international law, and focuses on national and regional approaches.
This text addresses a question in contemporary international economies: the design, structure and... more This text addresses a question in contemporary international economies: the design, structure and content of the legal and institutional framework within an increasingly globalized civil society and market economy. It is based on the belief that liberalized global markets cannot be expected to provide the public goods required to secure the acquis communautaire for human rights worldwide, let alone to extend those rights to peoples hitherto deprived of their benefits. Scholars from Europe, America, Asia and Australia examine a variety of aspects of relevant state practice. They combine "international social critique" of state practice with ideas for "social engineering", offering critical legal analysis and ideas about policy options for setting standards to induce legal change and development.
The institution of UN special rapporteurs has been described as the “crown jewel” of the UN human... more The institution of UN special rapporteurs has been described as the “crown jewel” of the UN human rights system. Indeed, the appointment of such rapporteurs represents an attempt by the United Nations “to pierce the veil of the national sovereignty” of states to handle serious cases of violations of human rights worldwide. However, this institution has come under pressure from those states with a poor record of human rights in the recent past. The forthcoming review of the work and status of the Human Rights Council by the General Assembly should be of value to this institution and make it stronger.
The concept of ‘sustainable development’ has attracted considerable attention in recent years and... more The concept of ‘sustainable development’ has attracted considerable attention in recent years and has become of pivotal importance, not only in scientific and political discourse but also, increasingly, in the practice of states and of relevant international organisations. Since 1992 and within a remarkably short period of time, sustainable development has been endorsed and recognised in a number of instruments of international law. Thus, it is incorporated in various environmental treaties as well as in international fisheries agreements, the 1995 Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organisation (WTO) and EU law. Sustainable development and related concepts also feature in a number of international judicial decisions of the 1990s, for example those of the International Court of Justice and the WTO Appellate Body. The chapters assembled in this book illustrate various aspects of efforts of policy makers, regional and national interest groups to invoke and rely upon international law for the realisation of the objective of sustainable development. They deal in particular with recent examples of the practice of states and of relevant international organisations, especially in such areas as international trade, foreign investment regulation, human rights and natural resources and waste management. Furthermore, some chapters are dedicated to a review of relevant practice at the regional and national level.