Engel C, Brunkhorst FM, Bone HG et al (2007) Epidemiology of sepsis in Germany: results from a national prospective multicenter study. Intensive Care Med 33(4):606–618 ArticlePubMed Google Scholar
Iregui M, Ward S, Sherman G et al (2002) Clinical importance of delays in the initiation of appropriate antibiotic treatment for ventilator-associated pneumonia. Chest 122(1):262–268 ArticlePubMed Google Scholar
Kumar A, Roberts D, Wood KE et al (2006) Duration of hypotension before initiation of effective antimicrobial therapy is the critical determinant of survival in human septic shock. Crit Care Med 34(6):1589–1596 ArticlePubMed Google Scholar
File TM Jr, Mandell LA (2003) What is optimal antimicrobial therapy for bacteremic pneumococcal pneumonia? Clin Infect Dis 36(4):396–398 ArticlePubMed Google Scholar
Reinhart K, Brunkhorst FM, Bone HG et al (2010) Prävention, Diagnose, Therapie und Nachsorge der Sepsis. Erste Revision der S2k-Leitlinien der Deutschen Sepsis-Gesellschaft e.V. (DSG) und der Deutschen Interdisziplinaren Vereinigung fur Intensiv- und Notfallmedizin (DIVI). Anaesthesist 59(4):347–370 ArticlePubMedCAS Google Scholar
Höffken G, Lorenz J, Kern W et al (2009) Epidemiologie, Diagnostik, antimikrobielle Therapie und Management von erwachsenen Patienten mit ambulant erworbenen unteren Atemwegsinfektionen sowie ambulant erworbener Pneumonie – Update 2009. S3-Leitlinie der Paul-Ehrlich-Gesellschaft für Chemotherapie, der Deutschen Gesellschaft fur Pneumologie und Beatmungsmedizin, der Deutschen Gesellschaft fur Infektiologie und vom Kompetenznetzwerk CAPNETZ. Pneumologie 63(10):e1–68 ArticlePubMed Google Scholar
Harbarth S (2007) Antibiotikatherapie – Einfluss des Antibiotikaverbrauchs auf Resistenzbildung und -selektion. Anasthesiol Intensivmed Schmerzther 2:130–135 Article Google Scholar
Assicot M, Gendrel D, Carsin H et al (1993) High serum procalcitonin concentrations in patients with sepsis and infection. Lancet 341(8844):515–518 ArticlePubMedCAS Google Scholar
Harbarth S, Holeckova K, Froidevaux C et al (2001) Diagnostic value of procalcitonin, interleukin-6, and interleukin-8 in critically ill patients admitted with suspected sepsis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 164(3):396–402 PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Linscheid P, Seboek D, Schaer DJ et al (2004) Expression and secretion of procalcitonin and calcitonin gene-related peptide by adherent monocytes and by macrophage-activated adipocytes. Crit Care Med 32(8):1715–1721 ArticlePubMedCAS Google Scholar
Meisner M, Schmidt J, Huttner H, Tschaikowsky K (2000) The natural elimination rate of procalcitonin in patients with normal and impaired renal function. Intensive Care Med 26(Suppl 2):212–216 Article Google Scholar
Christ-Crain M, Schuetz P, Huber AR, Muller B (2008) Procalcitonin und seine Bedeutung für die Diagnose bakterieller Infektionen. Ther Umsch 65(9):559–568 ArticlePubMed Google Scholar
Christ-Crain M, Jaccard-Stolz D, Bingisser R et al (2004) Effect of procalcitonin-guided treatment on antibiotic use and outcome in lower respiratory tract infections: cluster-randomised, single-blinded intervention trial. Lancet 363(9409):600–607 ArticlePubMedCAS Google Scholar
Christ-Crain M, Stolz D, Bingisser R et al (2006) Procalcitonin guidance of antibiotic therapy in community-acquired pneumonia: a randomized trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 174(1):84–93 ArticlePubMedCAS Google Scholar
Stolz D, Christ-Crain M, Bingisser R et al (2007) Antibiotic treatment of exacerbations of COPD: a randomized, controlled trial comparing procalcitonin-guidance with standard therapy. Chest 131(1):9–19 ArticlePubMedCAS Google Scholar
Briel M, Schuetz P, Mueller B et al (2008) Procalcitonin-guided antibiotic use vs a standard approach for acute respiratory tract infections in primary care. Arch Intern Med 168(18):2000–2007; discussion 2007–2008 ArticlePubMed Google Scholar
Schuetz P, Christ-Crain M, Thomann R et al (2009) Effect of procalcitonin-based guidelines vs standard guidelines on antibiotic use in lower respiratory tract infections: the ProHOSP randomized controlled trial. JAMA 302(10):1059–1066 ArticlePubMedCAS Google Scholar
Nobre V, Harbarth S, Graf JD et al (2008) Use of procalcitonin to shorten antibiotic treatment duration in septic patients: a randomized trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 177(5):498–505 ArticlePubMedCAS Google Scholar
Hochreiter M, Kohler T, Schweiger AM et al (2008) Antibiotikatherapie bei operativen Intensivpatienten – Prokalzitonin zur Steuerung der Therapiedauer. Anaesthesist 57(6):571–577 ArticlePubMedCAS Google Scholar
Schroeder S, Hochreiter M, Koehler T et al (2009) Procalcitonin (PCT)-guided algorithm reduces length of antibiotic treatment in surgical intensive care patients with severe sepsis: results of a prospective randomized study. Langenbecks Arch Surg 394(2):221–226 ArticlePubMedCAS Google Scholar
Bouadma L, Luyt CE, Tubach F et al (2010) Use of procalcitonin to reduce patients‘ exposure to antibiotics in intensive care units (PRORATA trial): a multicentre randomised controlled trial. Lancet 375(9713):463–474 ArticlePubMedCAS Google Scholar
Stolz D, Smyrnios N, Eggimann P et al (2009) Procalcitonin for reduced antibiotic exposure in ventilator-associated pneumonia: a randomised study. Eur Respir J 34(6):1364–1375 ArticlePubMedCAS Google Scholar
Rau BM, Kemppainen EA, Gumbs AA et al (2007) Early assessment of pancreatic infections and overall prognosis in severe acute pancreatitis by procalcitonin (PCT): a prospective international multicenter study. Ann Surg 245(5):745–754 ArticlePubMed Google Scholar
Rau BM, Frigerio I, Buchler MW et al (2007) Evaluation of procalcitonin for predicting septic multiorgan failure and overall prognosis in secondary peritonitis: a prospective, international multicenter study. Arch Surg 142(2):134–142 ArticlePubMedCAS Google Scholar
Rau B, Steinbach G, Baumgart K et al (2000) The clinical value of procalcitonin in the prediction of infected necrosis in acute pancreatitis. Intensive Care Med 26(Suppl 2):159–164 Google Scholar
Chiesa C, Panero A, Rossi N et al (1998) Reliability of procalcitonin concentrations for the diagnosis of sepsis in critically ill neonates. Clin Infect Dis 26(3):664–672 ArticlePubMedCAS Google Scholar
Chiesa C, Pellegrini G, Panero A et al (2003) C-reactive protein, interleukin-6, and procalcitonin in the immediate postnatal period: influence of illness severity, risk status, antenatal and perinatal complications, and infection. Clin Chem 49(1):60–68 ArticlePubMedCAS Google Scholar
Rossum AM van, Wulkan RW, Oudesluys-Murphy AM (2004) Procalcitonin as an early marker of infection in neonates and children. Lancet Infect Dis 4(10):620–630 ArticlePubMed Google Scholar
Dubos F, Korczowski B, Aygun DA et al (2008) Serum procalcitonin level and other biological markers to distinguish between bacterial and aseptic meningitis in children: a European multicenter case cohort study. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 162(12):1157–1163 ArticlePubMed Google Scholar
Schutzle H, Forster J, Superti-Furga A, Berner R (2009) Is serum procalcitonin a reliable diagnostic marker in children with acute respiratory tract infections? A retrospective analysis. Eur J Pediatr 168(9):1117–1124 ArticlePubMed Google Scholar
Marc E, Menager C, Moulin F et al (2002) Procalcitonin and viral meningitis: reduction of unnecessary antibiotics by measurement during an outbreak. Arch Pediatr 9(4):358–364 ArticlePubMedCAS Google Scholar
Stocker M, Fontana M, El Helou S et al (2010) Use of procalcitonin-guided decision-making to shorten antibiotic therapy in suspected neonatal early-onset sepsis: prospective randomized intervention trial. Neonatology 97(2):165–174 ArticlePubMed Google Scholar
Yu Z, Liu J, Sun Q et al (2010) The accuracy of the procalcitonin test for the diagnosis of neonatal sepsis: a meta-analysis. Scand J Infect Dis 42(10):723–733 ArticlePubMed Google Scholar
Goossens H, Ferech M, Vander Stichele R, Elseviers M (2005) Outpatient antibiotic use in Europe and association with resistance: a cross-national database study. Lancet 365(9459):579–587 PubMed Google Scholar
Brun-Buisson C (2000) The epidemiology of the systemic inflammatory response. Intensive Care Med 26(Suppl 1):64–74 Article Google Scholar
Zerlauth U (2001) Blutkultur und Liquordiagnostik; Standardisierung und Qualitätssicherung in der mikrobiologischen Diagnostik. Bundesministerium für Soziales, Sicherheit und Generation, Österreich
Shafazand S, Weinacker AB (2002) Blood cultures in the critical care unit: improving utilization and yield. Chest 122(5):1727–1736 ArticlePubMed Google Scholar
Sinclair D, Svendsen A, Marrie T (1998) Bacteremia in nursing home patients. Prevalence among patients presenting to an emergency department. Can Fam Physician 44:317–322 PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Wahl HG, Herzum I, Renz H (2003) Sepsis und Sepsismarker – Update. J Lab Med 27:431–439 ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Meisner M, Tschaikowsky K, Palmaers T, Schmidt J (1999) Comparison of procalcitonin (PCT) and C-reactive protein (CRP) plasma concentrations at different SOFA scores during the course of sepsis and MODS. Crit Care 3(1):45–50 ArticlePubMed Google Scholar
Oberhoffer M, Vogelsang H, Russwurm S et al (1999) Outcome prediction by traditional and new markers of inflammation in patients with sepsis. Clin Chem Lab Med 37(3):363–368 ArticlePubMedCAS Google Scholar
Tang BM, Eslick GD, Craig JC, McLean AS (2007) Accuracy of procalcitonin for sepsis diagnosis in critically ill patients: systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis 7(3):210–217 ArticlePubMedCAS Google Scholar
Jensen JU, Lundgren B, Lundgren JD (2007) Meta-analysis of procalcitonin for sepsis detection. Lancet Infect Dis 7(8):499–500; author reply 502–493 ArticlePubMed Google Scholar
Muller B, Christ-Crain M, Schuetz P (2007) Meta-analysis of procalcitonin for sepsis detection. Lancet Infect Dis 7(8):498–499; author reply 502–493 ArticlePubMed Google Scholar
Simon L, Gauvin F, Amre DK et al (2004) Serum procalcitonin and C-reactive protein levels as markers of bacterial infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis 39(2):206–217 ArticlePubMedCAS Google Scholar
Meisner M (2005) Biomarkers of sepsis: clinically useful? Curr Opin Crit Care 11(5):473–480 ArticlePubMed Google Scholar
Tugrul S, Esen F, Celebi S et al (2002) Reliability of procalcitonin as a severity marker in critically ill patients with inflammatory response. Anaesth Intensive Care 30(6):747–754 PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Ivancevic N, Radenkovic D, Bumbasirevic V et al (2008) Procalcitonin in preoperative diagnosis of abdominal sepsis. Langenbecks Arch Surg 393(3):397–403 ArticlePubMed Google Scholar
Mokart D, Merlin M, Sannini A et al (2005) Procalcitonin, interleukin 6 and systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS): early markers of postoperative sepsis after major surgery. Br J Anaesth 94(6):767–773 ArticlePubMedCAS Google Scholar
Molter GP, Soltesz S, Kottke R et al (2003) Procalcitoninplasmakonzentration und systemische inflammatorische Antwort nach verschiedenen operativen Eingriffen. Anaesthesist 52(3):210–217 ArticlePubMedCAS Google Scholar
Balci C, Sivaci R, Akbulut G, Karabekir HS (2009) Procalcitonin levels as an early marker in patients with multiple trauma under intensive care. J Int Med Res 37(6):1709–1717 PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Wanner GA, Keel M, Steckholzer U et al (2000) Relationship between procalcitonin plasma levels and severity of injury, sepsis, organ failure, and mortality in injured patients. Crit Care Med 28(4):950–957 ArticlePubMedCAS Google Scholar
Davis TM, Assicot M, Bohuon C et al (1994) Serum procalcitonin concentrations in acute malaria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 88(6):670–671 ArticlePubMedCAS Google Scholar
Becker KL, Snider RH, Silva OL, Moore CF (1978) Calcitonin heterogeneity in lung cancer and medullary thyroid cancer. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 89(1):89–99 Google Scholar
Brunkhorst FM, Eberhard OK, Brunkhorst R (1999) Discrimination of infectious and noninfectious causes of early acute respiratory distress syndrome by procalcitonin. Crit Care Med 27(10):2172–2176 ArticlePubMedCAS Google Scholar
Gerard Y, Hober D, Petitjean S et al (1995) High serum procalcitonin level in a 4-year-old liver transplant recipient with a disseminated candidiasis. Infection 23(5):310–311 ArticlePubMedCAS Google Scholar
Huber W, Schweigart U, Bottermann P (1997) Failure of PCT to indicate severe fungal infection in two immunodeficient patients. Infection 25(6):377–378 ArticlePubMedCAS Google Scholar
Meisner M, Tschaikowsky K, Hutzler A et al (1998) Postoperative plasma concentrations of procalcitonin after different types of surgery. Intensive Care Med 24(7):680–684 ArticlePubMedCAS Google Scholar
Soderquist B, Jones I, Fredlund H, Vikerfors T (1998) Bacterial or crystal-associated arthritis? Discriminating ability of serum inflammatory markers. Scand J Infect Dis 30(6):591–596 ArticlePubMedCAS Google Scholar
Dissel JT van (2003) Procalcitonin: what should be its role in the clinical management of febrile patients admitted to the hospital? Clin Infect Dis 36(6):824–825; author reply 826–827 ArticlePubMed Google Scholar
Charles PE, Tinel C, Barbar S et al (2009) Procalcitonin kinetics within the first days of sepsis: relationship with the appropriateness of antibiotic therapy and the outcome. Crit Care 13(2):R38 ArticlePubMed Google Scholar
Georgopoulou AP, Savva A, Giamarellos-Bourboulis EJ et al (2010) Early changes of procalcitonin may advise about prognosis and appropriateness of antimicrobial therapy in sepsis. J Crit Care, doi 10.1016/j.jcrc.2010.07.012
De With K, Schroder H, Meyer E et al (2004) Antibiotikaanwendung in Deutschland im europäischen Vergleich. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 129(38):1987–1992 Article Google Scholar
Marchetti O, Bille J, Fluckiger U et al (2004) Epidemiology of candidemia in Swiss tertiary care hospitals: secular trends, 1991–2000. Clin Infect Dis 38(3):311–320 ArticlePubMed Google Scholar
Brunkhorst FM, Engel C, Bloos F et al (2008) Intensive insulin therapy and pentastarch resuscitation in severe sepsis. N Engl J Med 358(2):125–139 ArticlePubMedCAS Google Scholar
Schuetz P, Christ-Crain M, Wolbers M et al (2007) Procalcitonin guided antibiotic therapy and hospitalization in patients with lower respiratory tract infections: a prospective, multicenter, randomized controlled trial. BMC Health Serv Res 7:102 ArticlePubMed Google Scholar
Clec’h C, Fosse JP, Karoubi P et al (2006) Differential diagnostic value of procalcitonin in surgical and medical patients with septic shock. Crit Care Med 34(1):102–107 Article Google Scholar
Muller B, Becker KL, Schachinger H et al (2000) Calcitonin precursors are reliable markers of sepsis in a medical intensive care unit. Crit Care Med 28(4):977–983 ArticlePubMedCAS Google Scholar
Jensen JU, Lundgren B, Hein L et al (2008) The Procalcitonin And Survival Study (PASS) – a randomised multi-center investigator-initiated trial to investigate whether daily measurements biomarker procalcitonin and pro-active diagnostic and therapeutic responses to abnormal procalcitonin levels, can improve survival in intensive care unit patients. Calculated sample size (target population): 1000 patients. BMC Infect Dis 8:91 ArticlePubMed Google Scholar
Charles PE, Ladoire S, Snauwaert A et al (2008) Impact of previous sepsis on the accuracy of procalcitonin for the early diagnosis of blood stream infection in critically ill patients. BMC Infect Dis 8:163 ArticlePubMed Google Scholar
Gendrel D, Raymond J, Coste J et al (1999) Comparison of procalcitonin with C-reactive protein, interleukin 6 and interferon-alpha for differentiation of bacterial vs. viral infections. Pediatr Infect Dis J 18(10):875–881 ArticlePubMedCAS Google Scholar
Sachse C, Dressler F, Henkel E (1998) Increased serum procalcitonin in newborn infants without infection. Clin Chem 44(6 Pt 1):1343–1344 PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Svoboda P, Kantorova I, Scheer P et al (2007) Can procalcitonin help us in timing of re-intervention in septic patients after multiple trauma or major surgery? Hepatogastroenterology 54(74):359–363 PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Hochreiter M, Kohler T, Schweiger AM et al (2008) Antibiotikatherapie bei operativen Intensivpatienten: Prokalzitonin zur Steuerung der Therapiedauer. Anaesthesist 57(6):571–577 ArticlePubMedCAS Google Scholar
Balc IC, Sungurtekin H, Gurses E et al (2003) Usefulness of procalcitonin for diagnosis of sepsis in the intensive care unit. Crit Care 7(1):85–90 Article Google Scholar
Castelli GP, Pognani C, Meisner M et al (2004) Procalcitonin and C-reactive protein during systemic inflammatory response syndrome, sepsis and organ dysfunction. Crit Care 8(4):R234–242 ArticlePubMed Google Scholar
Suprin E, Camus C, Gacouin A et al (2000) Procalcitonin: a valuable indicator of infection in a medical ICU? Intensive Care Med 26(9):1232–1238 ArticlePubMedCAS Google Scholar
Al-Nawas B, Krammer I, Shah PM (1996) Procalcitonin in diagnosis of severe infections. Eur J Med Res 1(7):331–333 PubMedCAS Google Scholar