Atherosclerosis and Oxidant Stress: The End of the Road for Antioxidant Vitamin Treatment? (original) (raw)
Griendling KK, FitzGerald GA. Oxidative stress and cardiovascular injury. Part II: animal and human studies. Circulation 2003;108:2034–40. PubMed Google Scholar
Schachinger V, Zeiher AM. Atherogenesis-recent insights into basic mechanisms and their clinical impact. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2002;17:2055–64. PubMed Google Scholar
Huang A, Vita JA, Venema RC, Keaney JF Jr. Ascorbic acid enhances endothelial nitric-oxide synthase activity by increasing intracellular tetrahydrobiopterin. J Biol Chem 2000;275:17399–406. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Gokce N, Keaney JF, Frei B, Holbrook M, Olesiak M, Zachariah BJ, et al. Long-term ascorbic acid administration reverses endothelial vasomotor dysfunction in patients with coronary artery disease. Circulation 1999;99:3234–40. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Levine GN, Frei B, Koulouris SN, Gerhard MD, Keaney JF Jr, Vita JA. Ascorbic acid reverses endothelial vasomotor dysfunction in patients with coronary artery disease. Circulation 1996;93:1107–13. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Taddei S, Virdis A, Ghiadoni L, Magagna A, Salvetti A. Vitamin C improves endothelium-dependent vasodilation by restoring nitric oxide activity in essential hypertension. Circulation 1998;97:2222–9. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Ting HH, Timimi FK, Haley EA, Roddy M-A, Ganz P, Creager MA. Vitamin C improves endothelium-dependent vasodilation in forearm resistance vessels of human with hypercholesterolaemia. Circulation 1997;95:2617–22. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Reilly M, Delanty N, Lawson JA, Fitzgerald GA. Modulation of oxidant stress in vivo in chronic cigarette smokers. Circulation 1996;94:19–25. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Huang H, Appel LJ, Croft KD, Miller ER III, Moria TA, Puddey IB. Effects of vitamin C and vitamin E on in vivo lipid peroxidation: results of a randomised controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr 2002;76:549–55. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Jenner AM, Ruiz JE, Dunster C, Halliwell B, Mann GE, Siow RJ. Vitamin C protects against hypochlorous acid-induced glutathione depletion and DNA base and protein damage in human vascular smooth muscle cells. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2002;22:574–80. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Jarvik GP, Tsai NT, McKinstry LA, Wani R, Brophy VH, Richter RJ, et al. Vitamin C and E is associated with increased paraoxonase activity. Arterioscler Thromb and Vasc Biol 2002;22:1329–33. CAS Google Scholar
Brigelius-Flohe R, Kelly FT, Salonen JT, Neuzil J, Zingg JM, Azzi A. The European perspective on vitamin E: current knowledge and future research. Am J of Clin Nutr 2002;76:703–16. CAS Google Scholar
The HOPE and HOPE-TOO Trial Investigators. Effects of long-term vitamin E supplementation on cardiovascular events and cancer. JAMA 2005;293:1338–47. Google Scholar
Kuller LH. A time to stop prescribing antioxidant vitamins to prevent and treat heart disease? Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2001;21:1253. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Steinberg D, Witztum JL. Current perspective. Is the oxidative modification hypothesis relevant to human atherosclerosis? Do the antioxidant trials conducted to date refute the hypothesis? Circulation 2002;105:2107. PubMed Google Scholar
Heinecke JW. Is the emperor wearing clothes? Clinical trials of vitamin E and the LDL oxidation hypothesis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2001;21:1261–4. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Libby P, Ridker MD, Maseri A. Inflammation and atherosclerosis. Circulation 2002;105:1135–43. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Chisolm GM, Hazen SL, Fox PL, Cathcart MK. Minireview. The oxidation of lipoproteins by monocytes-macrophages. Biochemical and biological mechanisms. J Biol Chem 1999;274:25959–62. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Brown BG, Crowley J. Is there any hope for vitamin E? JAMA 2005;293:1387–90. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Lonn EM, Yusuf S, Dzavik V, Doris C, Yi Q, Smith S, et al. Effects of ramipril and vitamin E on atherosclerosis: the Study to Evaluate Carotid Ultrasound changes in patients treated with Ramipril and Vitamin E (SECURE). Circulation 2001;103:919–25. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Dahlof B, Devereux RB, Kjeldsen SE, JUlius S, Beevers G, de Faire U, et al. Cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in the Losartan Intervention For Endpoint Study (LIFE): a randomised trial against atenolol. Lancet 2002;359:995–1003. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Touyz RM, Schiffrin EL. Signal transduction mechanisms mediating the physiological and pathophysiological actions of angiotensin II in vascular smooth muscle cells. Pharmacol Rev 2000;52:639–72. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Lum H, Roebuck KA. Oxidant stress and endothelial cell dysfunction. AJP-Cell Physiology 2001;280:C719–41. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Mueller CF, Laude K, McNally S, Harrison DG. Redox mechanisms in blood vessels. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2005;25:274–8. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Griendling KK, Sorescu D, Ushio-Fukai M. NAD(P)H oxidase: role in cardiovascular biology and disease. Cir Res 2000;86:494. CAS Google Scholar
Frei B. On the role of vitamin C and other antioxidants in atherogenesis and vascular dysfunction. PSEBM 1999;222:196–204. CAS Google Scholar
Cai H, Harrison DG. MiniReview. Endothelial dysfunction in cardiovascular diseases: the role of oxidant stress. Circ Res 2000;87:840–4. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Irani K. Oxidant signaling in vascular cell growth, death, and survival. A review of the roles of reactive oxygen species in smooth muscle and endothelial cell mitogenic and apoptotic signaling. Circ Res 2000;87:179–83. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Nickenig G, Harrison DG. The AT1-type angiotensin receptor in oxidative stress and atherogenesis. Part II: AT1 receptor regulation. Circulation 2002;105:530–6. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Kunsch C, Medford RM. Oxidative stress as a regulator of gene expression in the vasculature. Circ Res 1999;85:753–66. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Diaz MN, Frei B, Vita JA, Keaney JF Jr. Antioxidants and atherosclerotic heart disease. N Engl J Med 1997;337:408–16. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Madamanchi NR, Vendrov A, Runge MS. Oxidative stress and vascular disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2005;25:1–11. Google Scholar
McCormick ML, Gavrila D, Weintraub NL. Role of oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of abdominal aortic aneurysms. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2007;27:1–9. Google Scholar
Nedeljkovic ZS, Gockce N, Loscalzo J. Mechanisms of oxidative stress and vascular dysfunction. Postgrad Med J 2003;79:195–200. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Libby P, Aikawa M. Vitamin C, collagen, and cracks in the plaque. Circulation 2002;105:1396–8. PubMed Google Scholar
Ganz P, Vita JA. Testing endothelial vasomotor function. nitric oxide, a multipotent molecule. Circulation 2003;108:2049–53. PubMed Google Scholar
Schachinger V, Britten MB, Zeiher AM. Prognostic impact of coronary vasodilator dysfunction on adverse long-term outcome of coronary heart disease. Circulation 2000;101:1899–906. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Verma S, Buchanan MR, Anderson TJ. Endothelial function testing as a biomarker of vascular disease. Circulation 2003;108:2054–9. PubMed Google Scholar
Harrision DG. Endothelial function and oxidant stress. Clin Cardiol 1997;20:11–7. Article Google Scholar
Bonetti PO, Lerman LO, Lerman A. Endothelial dysfunction. A marker of atherosclerotic risk. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2003;23:168–75. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Wever RM, Luscher TF, Cosentino F, Rabelink TJ. Atherosclerosis and the two faces of endothelial nitric oxide synthase. Circulation 1998;97:108–12. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Cooke JP. Asymmetrical dimethylarginine. The uber marker? Circulation 2004;109:1813–9. PubMed Google Scholar
Cooke JP. Does ADMA cause endothelial dysfunction? Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2000;20:2032–7. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Perticone F, Sciacqua A, Maio R, Perticone M, Maas R, Böger RH, et al. Asymmetric dimethylarginine, L-arginine, and endothelial dysfunction in essential hypertension. Am J Cardiology 2005;46:518–23. CAS Google Scholar
Jiang J-L, Zhang X-H, Li N-S, Rang W-Q, Ye F, Hu C-P, et al. Probucol decreases asymmetrical dimethylarginine level by alternation of protein arginine methyltransferase 1 and dimethylarginine dimethylaminohydrolase activity. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther 2006;20:281–94. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Palloshi A, Fragasso G, Piatti P, Monti LD, Setola E, Valsecchi G, et al. Effect of oral L-arginine on blood pressure and symptoms and endothelial function in patients with systemic hypertension, positive exercise tests, and normal coronary arteries. Am J Cardiology 2004;93:930–5. Google Scholar
Islam B, Delafontaine P. Endothelial dysfunction: its role in hypertensive coronary disease. Curr Opin Cardiol 2005;20:270–4. Google Scholar
Moens AL, Kass DA. Tetrahydrobiopterin and cardiovascular disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2006;26:2439. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Bevers LM, Braam B, Post JA, van Zonnevela AJ, Rabelink TJ, Koomans HA, et al. Tetrahydrobiopterin, but not L-arginine, decreases NO synthase uncoupling expressing high levels of endothelial NO synthase. Hypertension 2006;47:87–94. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
D’Uscio LV, Milstien S, Richardson D, Smith L, Katusic ZS. Long-term vitamin C treatment increases vascular tetrahydrobiopterin levels and nitric oxide synthase activity. Circ Res 2003;92:88–95. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Hornig B. Vitamins, antioxidants and endothelial function in coronary artery disease. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther 2002;16:401–9. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Heitzer T, Just H, Munzel T. Antioxidant vitamin C improves endothelial dysfunction in chronic smokers. Circulation 1996;94:6–9. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
McSorley PT, Young IS, Bell PM, Fee JP, McCance DR. Vitamin C improves endothelial function in healthy estrogen-deficient postmenopausal women. Climacteric 2003;6:238–47. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Grebe M, Eisele HJ, Weissmann N, Schaefer C, Tillmanns H, Seeger W, et al. Antioxidant vitamin C improves endothelial function in obstructive sleep apnea. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2006;173:897–901. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Engler MM, Engler MB, Malloy MJ, Chiu EY, Schoetler MC, Paul SM, et al. Antioxidant vitamins C and E improve endothelial function in children with hyperlipidemia. Circulation 2003;108:1059–63. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Upston JM, Terentis AC, Stocker R. Tocopherol-mediated peroxidation of lipoproteins: implications for vitamin E as a potential antiatherogenic supplement. FASEB J 1999;13:977–93. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Block G, Jenson C, Dietrich M, Norkus EP, Hudes M, Packer L. Plasma C-reactive protein concentrations in active and passive smokers: influence of antioxidant supplementation. J Am Coll Nutr 2004;23:141–7. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Carr A, Frei B. Does vitamin C act as pro-oxidant under physiological conditions? FASEB J 1999;13:1007–24. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Landmesser U, Hornig B, Drexler H. Endothelial function: a critical determinant in atherosclerosis? Circulation 2004;109:11–33. Google Scholar
Brown MS, Goldstein JL. Lipoprotein metabolism in the macrophage: implications for cholesterol deposition in atherosclerosis. Annu Rev Biochem 1983;52:223–61. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Wolin MS. Interactions of oxidants with vascular signaling systems. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2000;20:1430–42. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Steinberg D. Minireview. Low density lipoprotein oxidation and its pathobiological significance. J Biol Chem 1997;272:20963–6. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Ehara S, Ueda M, Naruko T, Haze K, Itoh A, Otsuka M, et al. Elevated levels of oxidized low density lipoprotein show a positive relationship with the severity of acute coronary syndromes. Circulation 2001;103:1955–60. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Toshima S, Hasegawa A, Kurabayashi M, Itabe H, Takano T, Sugano J, et al. Circulating oxidized low density lipoprotein levels. A biochemical risk marker for coronary heart disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2000;20:2243–7. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Tsimikas S, Witzum JL. Measuring circulating oxidized low-density lipoprotein to evaluate coronary risk. Circulation 2001;103:1930–2. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Montuschi P, Barnes PJ, Roberts LJ. Isoprostanes: markers and mediators of oxidative stress. FASEB J 2004;18:1791–800. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Morrow J. Quantification of isoprostanes as indices of oxidant stress and the risk of atherosclerosis in humans. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2005;25:279–86. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Davi G, Alessandrini P, Mezzetti A, Minotti G, Bucciarelli, Constantini F, et al. In vivo formation of 8-Epi-Postaglandin \( {\text{F}}_{{2\alpha }} \) is increased in hypercholesterolaemia. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1997;17:3230–5. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Meagher EA, Barry OP, Lawson JA, Rokach J, Fitzgerald GA. Effects of vitamin E on lipid peroxidation in healthy persons. JAMA 2001;285:1178–82. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Palinski W. United they go. Conjunct regulation of aortic antioxidant enzymes during atherogenesis. Circ Res 2003;93:183–5. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Galle J, Heermeier K. Angiotensin II and oxidized LDL: an unholy alliance creating oxidative stress. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1999;14:2585–9. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Szmitko PE, Wang C, Weisel RD, Jeffries GA, Anderson TJ, Verma S. Biomarkers of vascular disease linking inflammation to endothelial activation. Part II. Circulation 2003;108:2041–8. PubMed Google Scholar
Siow RC, Richards JP, Pedley KC, Leake DS, Mann GE. Vitamin C protects human vascular smooth muscle cells against apoptosis induced by moderately oxidized LDL containing high levels of lipid hydroperoxides. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1999;19:2387–94. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Carr AC, Ben-Zhan Z, Frei B. MiniReview potential antiatherogenic mechanisms of ascorbate (vitamin C) and α-tocopherol (vitamin E). Circ Res 2000;87:349–54. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Ross R. Atherosclerosis—an inflammatory disease. N Engl J Med 1999;340:115–25. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Paoletti R, Gotto AM, Hajjar DP. Inflammation in atherosclerosis and implications for therapy. Circulation 2004;109:20–6. Google Scholar
Blake GJ, Ridker PM. Novel clinical markers of vascular wall inflammation. Circ Res 2001;89:763–71. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Blake GJ, Ridker PM. C-reactive protein: a surrogate risk marker or mediator of atherothrombosis? Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2003;285:R1250–2. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Libby P, Ridker PM, Maseri A. Inflammation and atherosclerosis. Circulation 2002;105:1135–43. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Wannamethee SG, Lowe GDO, Rumley A et al. Associations of vitamin C status, fruit and vegetable intakes, and markers of inflammation and haemostasis. Am J Clin Nutr 2006;83:567–74. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Jialal I, Singh U. Is vitamin C an anti-inflammatory agent? Am J Clin Nutr 2006;83:525–6. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Dabbagh AJ, Frei B. Human suction blister interstitial fluid prevents metal ion-dependent oxidation of low density lipoprotein by macrophages and in cell-free systems. J of Clin Invest 1995;96:1958–66. ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Blakenberg S, Rupprecht HJ, Bickel C, Torzewski M, Hafner G, Tiret L, et al. Glutathione peroxidase I activity and cardiovascular events in patients with coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med 2003;349:1605–13. Google Scholar
‘t Hoen PA, Van der Lans CA, Van Eck M, Bijsterbosch MK, Van Berkel TJ, Twisk. Aorta of apoE-deficient mice responds to atherogenic stimuli by a prelesional increase and subsequent decrease in the expression of antioxidant enzymes. Circ Res 2003;93:262–9. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Horiuchi M, Tsutsui M, Tasaki H, Morishita T. Suda O, Nakata S, et al. Upregulation of vascular extracellular superoxide dismutase in patients with acute coronary syndromes. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2004;24:106. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Guo Z, Remmen HV, Yang H, Chen X, Mele J, Vijg J, et al. Changes in expression of antioxidant enzymes affect cell-mediated LDL oxidation and oxidized LDL-induced apoptosis in mouse aortic cells. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2001;21:1131–8. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Gouedard C, Koum-Besson N, Barouki R, Morel Y. Opposite regulation of the human paraoxonase-1 gene PON-1 by fenofibrate and statins. Mol Pharmacol 2003;63:945–56. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Tomas M, Senti M, Garcia-Faria F. Effect of simvastatin therapy on paraoxonase activity and related lipoproteins in familial hypercholesteroleamic patients. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2000;20:2113–9. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Gorinstein S, Zemser M, Haruenkit R, Chutakorn R, Grauer F, Martin-Belloso O, et al. Comparitive content of total polyphenols and dietary fiber in tropical fruits and persimmon. J Nutr Biochem 1999;10:367–71. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Hu FB, Wilett WC. Optimal diets for prevention of coronary heart disease. JAMA 2002;288:2569–78. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Keen CL, Holt RR, Oteiza PI, Fraga CG, Schmitz HH. Cocoa antioxidants and cardiovascular disease. Am J Clin Nutr 2005;81:298S–303S. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Covas M-I, Nyyssonen K, Poulson HE, Kaikkonen J, Zunft HJ, Kiesewetter H, et al. The effect of polyphenols in olive oil on the heart disease risk factors. Ann Intern Med 2006;145:333–41. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Lorgeril M, Salen P, Martin J-L, Monjaud I, Delaye J, Mamelle N. Mediterranean diet, traditional risk factors, and the rate of cardiovascular complications after myocardial infarction. Final report of the Lyon Diet Heart Study. Circulation 1999;99:779–85. PubMed Google Scholar
Berry C, Touyz R, Dominiczak AF, Webb RC, Johns DG. Angiotensin receptors: signaling, vascular pathophysiology, and interactions with ceramide. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2001;281:H2337–65. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Nickenig G, Harrison DG. The AT1-type angiotensin receptor in oxidative stress and atherogenesis. Part I: oxidative stress and atherogenesis. Circulation 2002;105:393–6. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Landmesser U, Harrison DG, Drexler H. Oxidant stress—a major cause of reduced endothelial nitric oxide availability in cardiovascular disease. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2005;12:1–7. Google Scholar
Rosenson RS. Modulating atherosclerosis through inhibition or blockade of angiotensin. Clin Cardiol 2003;26:305–11. PubMed Google Scholar
Pasini AF, Garbin UA, Nava MC, Stranieri C, Davoli A, Sawamura T, et al. Nebivolol decreases oxidative stress in essential hypertension patients and increases nitric oxide by reducing its oxidative inactivation. J Hypertens 2005;23:589–96. CAS Google Scholar
Berry C, Hamilton CA, Brosnan J, Magill FG, Berg GA, McMurray JJV, et al. Investigation into the sources of superoxide in human blood vessels. Angiotensin II increases superoxide production in human internal mammary arteries. Circulation 2000;101:2206. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Unger T. The role of the renin-angiotensin system in the development of cardiovascular disease. Am J Cardiology 2002;89:3A–10A. CAS Google Scholar
Keidar S, Gamliel-Lazarovich A, Kaplan M, Pavlotsky E, Harnoud S, Hayek T, et al. Mineralocorticoid receptor blocker increases angiotensin-converting enzyme II activity in congestive heart failure patients. Circ Res 2005;97:946. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Bõger RH, Schwedhelm E, Maas R, Quispe-Bravo S, Skamira C. ADMA and oxidative stress may relate to the progression of renal disease: rationale and design of the VIVALDI study. Vasc Med 2005;10:97–102. Google Scholar
Munzel T, Keaney JF. Are ACE inhibitors a “magic bullet” against oxidative stress? Circulation 2001;104:1571–4. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Yan C, Kim D, Aizawa T, Berk BC. Functional interplay between angiotensin II and nitric oxide. Cyclic GMP as a key mediator. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2003;23:26–36. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Mathru M, Huda R, Solanki DR, Hays S, Lang JD. Inhaled nitric oxide attenuates reperfusion inflammatory responses in humans. Anesthesiology. 2007;106:275–82. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Wassmann S, Laufs U, Baumer AT, Müller K, Ahlbory K, Linz W, et al. HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors improve endothelial dysfunction in normocholesterolaemic hypertension via reduced production of reactive oxygen species. Hypertension 2001;37:1450–7. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Shishehbor MH, Brennan M, Aviles RJ, Fu X, Penn MS, Sprecher DL, et al. Statins promote potent systemic antioxidant effects through specific inflammatory pathways. Circulation 2003;108:426–31. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Wassman S, Laufs U, Muller K, Konkol C, Ahlbory K, Baumer AT, et al. Cellular antioxidant effects of atorvastatin in vitro and in vivo. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2002;22:300–5. Google Scholar
McFarlane SI, Muniyappa R, Francisco R, Sowers JR. Pleiotropic effects of statins: lipid reduction and beyond. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002;87:1451–8. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Hattori Y, Nakanishi N, Akimoto K, Yoshido M, Kasai K. HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor increase GTP cyclohydrolase I mRNA and tetrahydrobiopterin in vascular endothelial cells. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2003;23:176–82. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Laufs U, Fata VL, Plutzky J, Liao K. Upregulation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase by HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors. Circulation 1998;97:1129–35. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Lu T, Ding Y, Leu H, Yin WH, Shen WH, Chu KM. Effect of rosuvastatin on plasma levels of asymmetric dimethylarginine in patients with hypercholesteroleamia. Am J Cardiol 2004;94:157–61. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Palinski W, Napoli C. Unravelling pleiotropic effects of statins on plaque rupture. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2002;22:1745–50. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Cheung MC, Zhao X-Q, Chait A, Albers JJ, Brown BG. Antioxidant supplements block the response of HDL to simvastatin-niacin therapy in patients with coronary artery disease and low LDL. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2001;21:1320–6. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Brown BG, Cheung MC, Lee AC, Zhao ZQ, Chait A. Antioxidant vitamins and lipid therapy end of a long romance? Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2002;22:1535–46. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Brown BG, Zhao X-Q, Chait A, Fisher LD, Cheung MC, Morse JS, et al. Simvastatin and niacin, antioxidant vitamins, or the combination for the prevention of coronary disease. N Engl J of Med 2001;345:1583–92. CAS Google Scholar
Antoniades C, Shirodaria C, Warrick N, Cai S, de Bono J, Lee J, et al. 5-Methyltetrahydrofolate rapidly improves endothelial function and decreases superoxide production in human vessels. Effects on vascular tetrahydrobiopterin availability and endothelial nitric oxide synthase coupling. Circulation 2006;114:1193–201. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Verhaar MC, Stroes E, Rabelink TJ. Folates and cardiovascular disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2002;22:6–13. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
The Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation Study Investigators. Vitamin E supplementation and cardiovascular events in high-risk patients. N Engl J Med 2000;342:154–60. Google Scholar
Dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E after myocardial infarction: results of the GISSI-Prevenzione trial. Lancet 1999;354:447–55.
The Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta Carotene Cancer Prevention Study Group. The effect of vitamin E and beta carotene on the incidence of lung cancer and other cancers in male smokers. New Engl J Med 1994;330;1029–35. Google Scholar
Gaetano G, Collaborative Group of the Primary Prevention Project. Low-dose aspirin and vitamin E in people at cardiovascular risk: a randomised trial in general practice. Collaborative Group of the Primary Prevention Project. Lancet 2001;357;89–95. PubMed Google Scholar
Hennekens CH, Buring JE, Manson JE, Stampfer M, Rosner B, Cook NR, et al. Lack of effect of long-term supplementation with beta-carotene on the incidence of malignant neoplasms and cardiovascular disease. New Engl J Med 1996;334;1145–9. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Greenberg ER, Baron JA, Karagas MR, Stukel TA, Nierenberg DW, Stevens MM, et al. Mortality associated with low plasma concentration of beta carotene and the effect of oral supplementation. JAMA 1996;275:699–703. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Lee IM, Cook NR, Manson JE, Buring JE, Hennekens CH. Beta-carotene supplementation and incidence of cancer and cardiovascular disease: the Women’s Health Study. J Natl Cancer Inst 1999;91:2102–6. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Omenn GS, Goodman GE, Thornquist MD, Balmes J, Cullen MR, Glass A, et al. Effects of a combination of beta carotene and vitamin A on lung cancer and cardiovascular disease. N Eng J Med 1996;334:1550–5. Google Scholar
Age-Related Eye Disease Study Research Group. A randomised, placebo-controlled clinical trial of high-dose supplementation with vitamins C and E and beta-carotene for age-related cataract and vision loss: AREDS Report. Arch Opthalmol 2001;9:1439–52. Google Scholar
MRC/BHF Heart Protection Study of antioxidant vitamin supplementation in 20,536 high-risk individuals: a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Heart Protection Study Collaborative Group. Lancet 2002;360:23–33. Google Scholar
Vivekananthan DP, Penn M, Sapp S, Hsu A, Topol EJ. Use of antioxidant vitamins for the prevention of cardiovascular disease: meta-analysis of randomised trials. Lancet 2003;361:2017–23. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Miller ER, Pastor-Barriuso R, Dalal D, Riemersma RA, Appel LJ, Guallar E. Meta-analysis : high-dosage vitamin E supplementation may increase all-cause mortality. Ann Intern Med 2005;142:37–46. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Steinberg D, Lewis A. Conner memorial lecture. Oxidative modification of LDL and atherogenesis. Circulation 1997;95:1062–71. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Stephens NG, Parsons A, Schofield PM, Kelly F, Cheeseman K, Mitchinson MJ. Randomised controlled trial of vitamin E in patients with coronary disease: Cambridge Heart Antioxidant Study (CHAOS). Lancet 1996;347:781–6. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Salonen RM, Nyyssonen K, Kaikkonen J, Porkala-Sarataho E, Voutilainen S, Rissanen TH, et al. Six-year effect of combined vitamin C and E supplementation on atherosclerotic progression. The Antioxidant Supplementation in Atherosclerosis Prevention (ASAP) Study. Circulation 2003;107:947–53. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Boaz M, Smetana S, Weinstein T, Matas Z, Gafter U, Iaina A, et al. Secondary prevention with Antioxidants of Cardiovascular Disease in Endstage Renal Disease (SPACE): randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2000;356:1213–8. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Fang JC, Kinlay S, Beltrame J, Hikita H, Wainstein M, Behrendt D, et al. Effects of vitamin C and E on progression of transplant-associated arteriosclerosis: a randomised trial. Lancet 2002;359:1108–13. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Lonn EM, Yusuf S. Emerging approaches in preventing cardiovascular disease. BMJ 1999;318:1337–41. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Watanabe K, Sekiya M, Ikeda S, Miyagawa M, Hashida K. Preventive effects of probucol on restenosis after percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty. Am Heart J 1996;132:23–9. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Pearson TA. From bench to bedside. New tools for coronary risk assessment. What are their advantages and limitations? Circulation 2002;105:886–92. PubMed Google Scholar
Libby P. Current concepts of the pathogenesis of the acute coronary syndromes. Circulation 2001;104:365–72. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Brigelius-Flohe R, Traber MG. Vitamin E: function and metabolism. FASEB J 1999;13:1145–55. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Patterson C, Madamanchi NR, Runge MS. The oxidative paradox. Another piece in the puzzle. Circ Res 2000;87:1074. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Kobayashi S, Inoue N, Ohashi Y, Terashima M, Matsui K, Mori T, et al. Interaction of oxidative stress and inflammatory response in coronary plaque instability. Important role of C− reactive protein. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2003;23:1398–404. PubMedCAS Google Scholar
Bjelakovik G, Nikolova D, Gluud LL, Simonetti RG, Gluud C. Mortality in randomised trials of antioxidant supplements for primary and secondary prevention. JAMA 2007;297:842–57. Google Scholar
Morrow DA, Braunwald E. Future of biomarkers in acute coronary syndromes. Moving towards a multimarker strategy. Circulation 2003;108:250–2. PubMed Google Scholar
Stouffer GA, Patterson C, Madamanchi N, Runge MS. Role of reactive oxygen species in angiotensin II signaling. The plot thickens. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2001;21:471. PubMedCAS Google Scholar