Christian John R Castro | Mapua Institute of Technology (original) (raw)

Chemical Engineering Laboratory by Christian John R Castro

Sedimentation, a natural process, is one of several techniques used for filtration or solid-liqui... more Sedimentation, a natural process, is one of several techniques used for filtration or solid-liquid separation procedures. Theory describes it as a flocculated suspension as a mixture of the solid and the fluid as two continuous superimposed media. This experiment aims to study the settling rate of chalk and mixture with varying concentration in a sedimentation apparatus by measuring the difference between initial and interface height, calculating for the settling velocity, and understanding the factors affecting the speed at which particles settle at the bottom of the apparatus. In this report, the interface heights and settling velocities at different concentrations in %w/v were presented in tabulated and graphical forms. It was observed that at higher concentrations of chalk, the interface height drops are relatively smaller. Meanwhile, low concentration of mixture starts at a high settling velocity but around 40 min. onwards the settling velocity of various concentrations starts to become closer; furthermore, at concentrations greater than B (< 11% w/v), the settling velocities are significantly closer. Despite having varying concentrations, the interface heights and settling velocity, when looking at the graphs, both follows the same trend.

The method of measurement known as calibration establishes the reliability of an experiment's res... more The method of measurement known as calibration establishes the reliability of an experiment's results by comparing the empirical outcome to the expected outcome. Meanwhile, rotameters are flow-measuring instruments that measure the volumetric flow rates of substances as passing through a tapered tube. It depends on a balance of forces between the drag or buoyant forces of the float that opposes fluid flow and the gravitational force acting on the mass of the float to derive the relationship between the scale reading in the rotameter and its volumetric flow rate. This paper aims to calibrate a rotameter by measuring the volume of the collected fluid and the elapsed time to determine the experimental volumetric flow rate and plot the calibration curve. The experimental flow rates from three trials were calculated and averaged while the percent error between the output values and rotameter readings was determined. After plotting the calibration and percent error data, the calibration curve was fitted in a linear equation of y = 1.0733x +15.466 with an R-square of 0.9973, and the values from 200 to 2500 cu. m./min were closer to ideality, but after that, the line slightly deviated. It is concluded that the volumetric flow rate from the effluent of the rotameter was accurate to the observed reading on the apparatus.

A fluidized bed refers to a system where a fluid enters at the bottom of a packed bed at a superf... more A fluidized bed refers to a system where a fluid enters at the bottom of a packed bed at a superficial velocity, expanding or fluidizing the bed as it pushes the particles upward. The fluidized bed can be classified by the behavior of the fluidized particles or by the fluidization regimes based on the increasing superficial velocity. In 1856, Henry Darcy's empirical law for laminar flow described that the flow rate is proportional to the pressure drop over a given distance and viscosity, which is used to calculate the superficial velocity inside the fluidized bed chamber. In this report, the particle behavior, the superficial velocity, and the bed height displacement at different volumetric flow rates were presented. EDIBON's TTLFC was used to observe the behavior of particles as compressed air entered the chamber at a specific flow rate. The observations and calculations show that the bed height displacement and the superficial velocity of the fluidized bed increase as the volumetric flow rate of air entering the system increases. This is also evident in the behavior of the particles inside the bed unit, where the bed went from a static state to a chaotic state as the flow rate escalated.

Size reduction is the process of producing small particles from larger ones through the applicati... more Size reduction is the process of producing small particles from larger ones through the application of attrition, compressive, cutting, impact, or any combination of these forces. The particles, ranging from 10 m. to the smallest possible, vary on the number, shape, and size. Sieving is the separation process of placing a sample in a stack of sieves in decreasing mesh sizes and then vibrated to cause particles to pass through the apertures. Lastly, particle-size distribution characterizes the length, number, size, surface area, and volume of the particles while mean diameters relate the distribution data to the reduction process or the material's physicochemical properties. In this report, the particle size distribution and mean diameters of grinded chalk under varying shaking durations was studied by operating a Thomas-Wiley mill and sieve shaker, making a screen analysis, and illustrating distribution data. The graphs show that mesh no. 60 (Dpi=0.0098 in.) collected the most amount of chalk over different durations and more than 50% of chalk are retained at Dpi> 0.0020 in. Lastly, it was also observed that all the mean diameter decreases as time progresses.

The tensile and compression tests are evaluation methods to examine the basic composition and mec... more The tensile and compression tests are evaluation methods to examine the basic composition and mechanical behavior of materials used to determine component design and service performance. Tensile tests are performed in order to choose materials for various engineering applications, while compression tests assess the mechanical properties of a material. The process for tensile strength is done by stretching the specimen's crossheads and checking for elasticity; on the other hand, for compression tests, the sample undergoes various compressive loads or pressure and determines its strength for consumer safety. This report evaluated the tensile strength for steel specimens of varying diameters and compressive strength for concrete samples with and without reinforced material using a Universal Testing Machine (UTM). Adding face masks to the concrete mixture did not increase the compressive strength of the specimen compared to the concrete aggregate specimen. Meanwhile, the tensile stress of specimens with increasing diameter depends on the surface area of contact and the quality of the material. Stress is inversely proportional to the square of the specimen's diameter. Then, the probability of the steel specimen at large sizes containing small voids increases, which may contribute to the brittleness or the tendency to fracture.

Heat exchangers are devices that exchange heat between two or more fluids of different temperatur... more Heat exchangers are devices that exchange heat between two or more fluids of different temperatures, which most commonly are indirectly contacting one another through an intermediary surface. Shell and tube, a type of heat exchanger, consists of a bundle of parallel tubes enclosed in a shell where fluids flow in a countercurrent or cocurrent direction. In this report, the heat transfer rate and overall heat transfer coefficient of varying pairs of volumetric flow rates were obtained and studied using recorded inlet and outlet temperatures and calculated bulk temperature, density, specific heat capacity, mass flow rate, and log-mean temperature difference. The measurements of the inlet and outlet temperatures of hot and cold water were performed using a WL 110.03 Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger by GUNT Hamburg after achieving thermal stability inside the heat exchanger. The effects of the volumetric flow rates on the heat transfer rate and overall heat transfer coefficient were found to be directly proportional. Meanwhile, as data suggests, the same conclusion about the bulk temperatures of hot and cold water streams cannot be suggested.

A continuous stirred-tank reactor is a type of reactor where the contents are well-mixed and unif... more A continuous stirred-tank reactor is a type of reactor where the contents are well-mixed and uniform resulting in an isothermal and steady-state condition from the fluid inside the vessel to its effluent. Widely used in different biological and chemical industries, it is important in processes involving exothermic reactions, lower reaction orders in parallel schemes, large volume operations, and longer contact time. In this report, the rate of reaction and rate constant involving sodium hydroxide and ethyl acetate at varying volumetric feed flow rates in a CSTR were obtained and studied using the recorded reactor temperature and steady-state conductivity and calculated initial mixed concentrations, initial and final conductivity, steady-state conversion, and final concentrations of reactant and products. The measurements of the reactor temperature and steady-state were collected using a CEM-MKII CSTR by Armfield after thermal stability was reached. The effects of increasing mixed concentrations A to the steady-state conversion and rate of reaction were inversely proportional while it is directly proportional for B. Lastly, an increase in the steady-state conversion in the CSTR results in an increase to the rate constant of the reaction.

A continuous stirred-tank reactor is a type of reactor where the contents are well-mixed and unif... more A continuous stirred-tank reactor is a type of reactor where the contents are well-mixed and uniform resulting in an isothermal and steady-state condition from the fluid inside the vessel to its effluent. Widely used in different biological and chemical industries, it is important in processes involving exothermic reactions, lower reaction orders in parallel schemes, large volume operations, and longer contact time. In this report, the rate of reaction and rate constant involving sodium hydroxide and ethyl acetate at varying reactor temperature in a CSTR were obtained and studied using the recorded reactor temperature and steady-state conductivity and calculated initial mixed concentrations, initial and final conductivity, steady-state conversion, and final concentrations of reactant and products. The measurements of the reactor temperature and steady-state were collected using a CEM-MKII CSTR by Armfield after thermal stability was reached. It is concluded that there is a directly relationship between the reactor temperature inside a CSTR to the steady-state, rate of reaction, and rate constant involving the reaction of sodium hydroxide and ethyl acetate.

Distillation or fractionation is the process of separating a liquid vapor-liquid feed mixture int... more Distillation or fractionation is the process of separating a liquid vapor-liquid feed mixture into two or more products in the overhead and bottom columns. There are two types of distillation operation: batch and continuous. Meanwhile, there are three different operating conditions, specifically (1) constant reflux and variable product composition, (2) variable reflux and constant product composition, and (3) optimal reflux and optimal product composition. This experiment focuses on a batch distillation operation at constant total reflux and variable product composition. This report studied the overall column efficiency inside a batch distillation column using a 50% ethanol-water feed mixture. A Brix refractometer was used to measure the concentration of different ethanolwater stock solutions for the calibration curve. In contrast, a UOP3 Batch Manual Distillation Column by Armfield was used to separate the feed mixture into the overhead and bottoms products. It is concluded that it would only require 2 stages, namely, 1 sieve plate and 1 reboiler duty, to distill the feed mixture in a batch process. The overall column efficiency would be 22.22%, meaning 7 sieve plates were unnecessary in the separation process.

Fluidization is operation of turning a stationary particle bed into a fluidized bed or randomly m... more Fluidization is operation of turning a stationary particle bed into a fluidized bed or randomly moving particles suspended in the entering liquid or gaseous fluid. Gas-fluidized and liquid-fluidized systems behave differently from each other since liquid systems move in a homogenous manner while gas systems behave violently. Heat transfer in a fluidized bed is classified into three modes: conduction, convection, and radiation. Convective heat transfer, the focus of the experiment, refers to the heat transfer between the fluid and particle bed at dynamic or stationary state. It is important to observe and quantify the effects of different fluidized bed conditions to heat transfer due to the industry's reliance to enhance the process. In this report, the effect of varying surface velocity of the air flow on the heat transfer coefficient was studied. A TTLFC unit by EDIBON was used to measure the fluidized bed and outlet air temperatures and to obtain the heat transfer coefficient inside the vertical column. It is concluded that once the outlet air temperature is higher than the fluidized bed temperature and the particle bed is fluidized then the heat transfer coefficient becomes positive.

Chemical Process Laboratory by Christian John R Castro

Plastics are composed of combinations of carbon bonded with hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, or other ... more Plastics are composed of combinations of carbon bonded with hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, or other organic and inorganic compounds while bioplastics refers to both bio-based and biodegradable plastics. Bioplastics are very important because they are environment safe even after use and are capable of reducing greenhouse gases and energy consumption during manufacturing, in comparison, to plastic made from synthetic materials. Also, polymerization is the process of formation of large polymers from small units of repeating polymers. The objective of the experiment was to make bioplastic from potato starch inside a laboratory by knowing the definition of bioplastic, learning how to synthesize bioplastic, and appreciating the importance of bioplastic. The experiment was divided into two parts which were the (1) extraction of potato starch and (2) production of bioplastic. For the extraction of starch, the potatoes were first cleaned and grated. Then, 100 mL of distilled water and the grated potatoes were placed together and grinded in a mortar and pestle. The liquid from the mortar was poured through a filter with the filtrate falling in a beaker. The same steps of adding of water, grinding of potatoes, and pouring of the liquid were repeated twice. The filtrate was settled for 15 minutes and was decanted to leave the starch behind. 100 mL of water was transferred and mixed with the starch. The mixture was decanted to again leave the starch behind. In the production of bioplastic, 2.5 g of potato starch, 3 mL of hydrochloric acid, 2 mL of glycerin and 25 mL of water were stirred together in a beaker. The mixture was boiled on a hot plate for 15 minutes with a watch glass as a lid. The pH concentration of the digested mixture was measured and after that, the mixture was neutralized using sodium hydroxide solution. Next, a drop of food coloring was added to the mixture before the mixture was evenly distributed on a petri dish and was dried for 1 to 2 days. The same procedure for producing bioplastic was repeated but without the use of glycerin. From the components, starch is composed of two polymers: amylose and amylopectin. Amylose compounds form a repeating chain of polymer which builds the film for the bioplastic however the presence of amylopectin inhibits this formation. Hydrochloric acid is used to remove amylopectin in the starch while sodium hydroxide neutralizes excess acid. Since the amylose chains are brittle, glycerin is added as a plasticizer to increase the plasticity of the amylose film.

Cologne, a type of perfume, is composed of 3 to 5 percent of aromatic compounds diluted in ethyl ... more Cologne, a type of perfume, is composed of 3 to 5 percent of aromatic compounds diluted in ethyl alcohol which is typically composed of a diluent, fixative, fragrant, and solvent. On the other hand, hand and body lotion is a complex polydispersed mixture of emulsifiers, oils, surfactants, and water. This experiment aims to produce cologne and hand and body lotion by preparing the materials and appreciating its role in the products, and by understanding the manufacturing process. The experiment began with the preparation of the materials by measuring the required weights needed of each material for the products. In making cologne, essential oil was dissolved and mixed into ethanol then the solution was diluted in water. A few drops of colorant were added into the mixture before being transferred to a packaging bottle. For hand and body lotion, cetyl alcohol, essential oil, glycerin, stearic acid, and water were stirred and heated on a hot plate at 70°C until liquified. Triethanolamine was then added to the solution before being cooled down to room temperature. After that, essential oil and DMDM hydantoin was incorporated into the mixture before being transferred to a packaging bottle. The results showed the colognes are cloudy, light blue, fragrant, liquid substances with the C2 formulation cloudier than the other while the lotion is an opaque, milk-like, lightweight, liquid substance with a high viscosity at low shear rate while a low viscosity at high shear rates. From the components, cetyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol, and water are solvents. Essential oil acted as a fragrant for both products. Meanwhile, water was a diluent in cologne. For hand and body lotion, glycerin and salt produced by reacting stearic acid and triethanolamine acted as the emulsifying agents in the lotion while cetyl alcohol also stabilizes their emulsification. Lastly, DMDM hydantoin was the preservative and antimicrobial agent of the product.

Soap, a by-product of saponification, is a cleaning agent composed of various surfactants-a subst... more Soap, a by-product of saponification, is a cleaning agent composed of various surfactants-a substance that reduces water's surface tension. It was the first substitute for water as washing agents and treatment for skin diseases, becoming the oldest and most natural surfactant, and was first made from animal fats and wood ashes. Saponification is the formation salts used in making soap which is product of the reaction between triglycerides and hydroxides. This experiment aimed to produce soap in a laboratory. Hot process and cold process are the two methods used in the production of soap. The experiment started with gathering and preparing the reagents, apparatus, and equipment to be used. In cold process, a 37% NaOH solution was mixed with 100 g of coconut oil to create the soap while in hot process, the oil was heated at 70°C before the NaOH solution was poured into the beaker. Both the soap mixture from the cold and hot process were poured in a molder and were left for days until the soaps harden. The orange and white soap were made through cold process while the purple and soap were through hot process. Saponification occurred in the experiment because NaOH breaking down the oil into water-miscible compounds was observed in both processes. The objectives of the experiment, namely, understanding the soap making process and identifying the roles of the raw materials, were met. Coconut oil and NaOH were reagents required for the formation of salt used in soap. This salt emulsifies with water, when stirred continuously until it transforms into a viscous substance which hardens after a few days. Water acts as the solvent in the emulsification while the soap salt acts as the emulsifying agent. Furthermore, NaOH displays antibacterial properties which is very important in soaps.

Coconut oils are edible oils extracted from coconut, specifically coconut milk and copra, which c... more Coconut oils are edible oils extracted from coconut, specifically coconut milk and copra, which contains 99.9% fatty acids with 92% saturated fatty acids and 7.9% unsaturated fatty acids. It is also known for its analgesic, anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antipyretic properties and for its rich supply of minerals, vitamins, and fiber. This experiment targets to extract oil from a coconut by learning the method of extraction, observing the extraction process, and understanding the effect of temperature on the extraction. There are two methods used in extracting coconut oil: cold process and hot process. In cold process, the coconut milk strained from the freshly grated coconut flesh was refrigerated for 10 to 17 hours. After refrigerating for several hours, the milk was removed out of the refrigerator and was let to rest until it reaches room temperature. Then, the unwanted coconut solids floating on the surface was discarded and the oil was separated and extracted from the water layer before it was stored in a packaging bottle. For hot process, the strained coconut milk was placed in stainless kettle and was boiled until it becomes thick and oily. The oil from the boiled milk was collected using a strainer or decanter before it was transferred in a packaging container. The coconut oil made from the cold process method is a pale white to an almost colorless substance with hints of a sweet coconut aroma. From the hot process, the oil exhibits a golden yellow to a golden-brown color with a strong toasted coconut smell and it also yields more oil than the cold process method.

Detergent is an amphiphilic substance that is consists of a complex mixture of substances which h... more Detergent is an amphiphilic substance that is consists of a complex mixture of substances which have cleaning and solubilization properties. There two types of laundry detergent: phosphate and surfactant. Phosphate detergent softens hard water while surfactant detergent enhances dispersion, emulsification, foaming, and wetting of detergents. Linear alkyl-benzyl sulfonic acid, an important component in detergent, is responsible for the dissolution rate and caking tendency of detergent. Powder detergents could be synthesized through spray drying and wet granulation. For this experiment, it aims to understand the process of making powdered detergent and identify the various roles of raw materials. The reagents were prepared based on indicated formulation. Next, sodium carbonate and LABS were vigorously mixed then CFAS, STPP, sodium sulfate, and essential were added and stirred until completely homogenized. Then, the same process was repeated for the remaining formulations. The detergents from the three formulations were partly homogenized because build-up of agglomerates was observed. From the components, CFAS and LABS acted as surfactants. STPP and sodium carbonate were determined as builders while sodium sulfate was an additive.

Wine is an undistilled alcoholic beverage made from fermented fruit juice. Meanwhile, fermentatio... more Wine is an undistilled alcoholic beverage made from fermented fruit juice. Meanwhile, fermentation refers to the catabolic and anaerobic process of transforming sugar into carbon dioxide and ethanol with the help of bacteria, preferably in the dark. For this experiment, it aims to create wine in a laboratory by learning the process on how to produce and by appreciating the role of each material in the product. The experiment started with the preparation of each ingredient, specifically, fruit juice, active yeast, and refined sugar, and the measurement of their required weights. Next, 50 mL of fruit juice was warmed on a hot plate and then refined sugar was dissolved into the heated juice. After that, the juice heated again to a temperature of 70°C. Active yeast was added and mixed with the hot juice. The mixture was then combined with the remaining fruit juice and its density was determined using a hydrometer or pycnometer. Then, the mixture was transferred in a bottle with a cotton wad or balloon as a cover and was left to ferment in a dark room for a week. After a week, the wine was decanted and filter before being placed in a packaging bottle. The same process was repeated for the remaining wine formulations. The results showed that the wine made from the W1 formulation was much paler than from W2 and W3. It was also observed that the specific gravity of all the wines was greater before fermentation occurred. From the ingredients, yeast acted as the fermenting agent which converted the sugar compounds from the fruit juice and from the refined sugar into alcohol. Also, sugar was used to balance sweetness and to produce more alcohol in the wine since the sugars in the fruit juice is not sufficient to reach the desired ethanol content for wines.

Toilet bowl cleaners are used to remove stains, grime, and biological matter on toilet bowl and r... more Toilet bowl cleaners are used to remove stains, grime, and biological matter on toilet bowl and restrooms which is generally composed of an acid, disinfectant, fragrant, surfactant, and thickening agent. Meanwhile, dishwashing liquids are used to minimize surface tension of food particles in dishes. Most dishwashing liquids are composed of a surfactant, builder, colorant, disinfectant, emulsifier, fragrant, and stabilizer. With that, the experiment aims to produce a toilet bowl cleaner and dishwashing liquid by first learning the manufacturing process and understanding the role of each material to the product. The experiment started with preparing the materials weighing the required masses of each material for both products. For making toilet bowl cleaner, nonyl phenol ethoxylate was first dissolved in water then the acid-stable colorant was added to the solution. After that, 32% (w/v) hydrochloric acid was poured and thoroughly stirred in the mixing vessel. The acid-stable fragrant was finally mixed in the cleaning solution. For dishwashing liquid, SLES was carefully dissolved in water to prevent the formation of foam. CDEA was then combined with the SLES solution. Next, benzalkonium chloride, colorant, and essential oil were added and stirred into the mixture and after that, NaCl salt was dropped to increase the dishwashing liquid's viscosity. Lastly, the dishwashing liquid was rested for a day for the foam to dissipate. The results showed that dishwashing liquid was a is a dark orange, viscous substance with bubbles and foam being evident in the product and the toilet bowl cleaner was a dark blue liquid substance with a low viscosity. From the components, nonyl phenol ethoxylate, CDEA, and SLES acted as the surfactant while benzalkonium chloride and hydrochloric acid were the disinfectants. SLES, on the other hand, were also determined as a foaming agent while NaCl and also nonyl phenol ethoxylate as thickening agents.

Physical Chemistry Laboratory by Christian John R Castro

This report determines the electrical properties of various solutions using a conductivity meter.... more This report determines the electrical properties of various solutions using a conductivity meter. To achieve this objective, the assigned sub-objectives are as follows: (1) to determine the relative mobility of some cations and anions through the conductance of the electrolyte solutions, and (2) to determine the dissociation constant of a weak electrolyte.

This report determines the partial molar enthalpy of an ammonium chloride solution at varying con... more This report determines the partial molar enthalpy of an ammonium chloride solution at varying concentrations. To achieve this goal, the following sub-objectives are assigned: (1) to prepare different concentrations of ammonium chloride solution, (2) to determine the effect of composition on the molar enthalpy of the solution, and (3) to evaluate the partial molar enthalpy of ammonium chloride and water from the molar enthalpy of the solution.

Physical property, whether intensive or extensive, refers to the measured, quantified, or observe... more Physical property, whether intensive or extensive, refers to the measured, quantified, or observed characteristics that describe the physical state of a specific substance. It is crucial to understand the behavior and properties of substances and materials, especially in their development and improvement for commercial and industrial applications. Some examples of physical properties include the following: boiling point temperature, freezing point temperature, density, and viscosity. On the other hand, cetyl alcohol and glycerin are some substances found in lotions that are complex mixtures of water and emulsifiers like surfactants and oil. The physical properties of cetyl alcohol help stabilize the emulsion and increase the product's viscosity, while glycerin acts as a substance that absorbs high amounts of moisture. To measure the physical properties of binary cetyl glycerin + cetyl alcohol mixture, an experimental method was designed and fabricated using different equipment and apparatus to prepare the glycerin + cetyl alcohol mixture at varying concentrations, to demonstrate the colligative properties of a glycerin + cetyl alcohol mixture, and to determine the colligative properties of 1.0 molal glycerin + cetyl alcohol solution, the density of the mixture using a densimeter, and the viscosity of the mixture using a Brookfield viscometer. Lastly, the weighted average and the equation of the line of the physical properties were calculated to observe the trend of the properties as the concentrations of the cetyl alcohol + glycerin mixture change and to determine an equation that describes the physical property at a specific concentration.

A continuous stirred-tank reactor is a type of reactor where the contents are well-mixed and unif... more A continuous stirred-tank reactor is a type of reactor where the contents are well-mixed and uniform resulting in an isothermal and steady-state condition from the fluid inside the vessel to its effluent. Widely used in different biological and chemical industries, it is important in processes involving exothermic reactions, lower reaction orders in parallel schemes, large volume operations, and longer contact time. In this report, the rate of reaction and rate constant involving sodium hydroxide and ethyl acetate at varying reactor temperature in a CSTR were obtained and studied using the recorded reactor temperature and steady-state conductivity and calculated initial mixed concentrations, initial and final conductivity, steady-state conversion, and final concentrations of reactant and products. The measurements of the reactor temperature and steady-state were collected using a CEM-MKII CSTR by Armfield after thermal stability was reached. It is concluded that there is a directly relationship between the reactor temperature inside a CSTR to the steady-state, rate of reaction, and rate constant involving the reaction of sodium hydroxide and ethyl acetate.

This experiment aims to separate caffeine from soda, coffee, and tea through liquid-liquid extrac... more This experiment aims to separate caffeine from soda, coffee, and tea through liquid-liquid extraction using dichloromethane. From this, the following sub-objectives are expected: (1) to discuss the fundamentals and processes behind extraction theory, (2) to determine the components in each liquid layer, and (3) to demonstrate the steps and techniques in liquid-liquid extraction to separate caffeine.

This experiment aims to recycle biodiesel by separating glycerol from water through simple distil... more This experiment aims to recycle biodiesel by separating glycerol from water through simple distillation. To attain this, the following sub-objectives are assigned: (1) to determine the mole percent composition of the water-glycerol and methanol-water mixture, (2) to prepare and understand the components and the concepts behind a simple distillation setup, (3) to interpret temperature vs volume plots and boiling point curves, and (4) to analyze the effect of atmospheric pressure on boiling point temperature.

This experiment aims to separate a solid from a liquid through recrystallization and purify the s... more This experiment aims to separate a solid from a liquid through recrystallization and purify the solid filtrate. To achieve this, the following sub-objectives are assigned: (1) to understand the principles of recrystallization theory, (2) to successfully recover the solid compound through suction filtration and drying, and (3) to compare the recovered sample from the crude sample data.

This experiment aims to separate a solid from a liquid through recrystallization and determine th... more This experiment aims to separate a solid from a liquid through recrystallization and determine the melting point range of the solid. To achieve this, the following sub-objectives are assigned: (1) to understand the principles of recrystallization theory, (2) to explain the operational and molecular processes of recrystallization, (3) to perform the recrystallization technique properly, and (4) to solve common problems encountered in the experiment.

This experiment aims to design reactions and synthesize compounds through the use of nucleophilic... more This experiment aims to design reactions and synthesize compounds through the use of nucleophilic substitution reactions. To attain this, the following sub-objectives were assigned: (1) to understand and explain the differences between SN1 and SN2 nucleophilic substitution reactions, (2) to draw the mechanisms from these reactions, (3) to factor in the stereochemistry of the compound in determining reaction mechanisms, (4) to describe the effects of the leaving group, nucleophile, solvent, and substrate in the substitution reaction, and (5) to determine the reactive and chemical properties of alkyl halides.

The experiment aims to form cyclohexanol through an elimination reaction and to investigate the s... more The experiment aims to form cyclohexanol through an elimination reaction and to investigate the several types of elimination and substitution reactions. To achieve this, the following sub-objectives are assigned: (1) to explain and undergo the reactions of E1 and E2 mechanisms, (2) to describe the differences between substitution (SN1 and SN2) and elimination (E1 and E2) reaction mechanisms, (3) to understand the reactivity of various alkyl halides under E1 and E2 reactions, (4) to predict the product of a reaction using Zaitsev’s Rule and its double-bond stereochemistry in an E2 reaction, and (5) to guess the product and reaction types of E1, E2, SN1, and SN2 type of reactions.

The experiment aims to use the knowledge on electrophilic addition reactions to identify hydrocar... more The experiment aims to use the knowledge on electrophilic addition reactions to identify hydrocarbons, and to study the principle of nucleophilic addition reactions and Grignard reactions to synthesize an organic molecule. To achieve this, the following sub-objectives are assigned: (1) to understand the reactions of alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes with electrophiles, and of carbonyl groups with nucleophiles (2) to provide a detailed and mechanistic understanding of electrophilic and nucleophilic addition reactions, (3) to describe a Grignard reaction and the sensitivity of its conditions, (4) to discuss the role of reagents in a Grignard reaction, (5) to learn about Markovnikov’s Rule and carbocation stability, (6) to predict the products of different addition reactions, and (7) to practice essential laboratory techniques like air-sensitive synthesis, reflux reactions, and synthesis and use of reagents.

The restriction and phase out of harmful fluids like chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofl... more The restriction and phase out of harmful fluids like chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) due to their implications on ozone depletions and the rising environmental concerns led to search for alternative refrigerants. Difluoromethane and octafluoropropane are considered as promising replacements for CFCs and HCFCs because of their very low to zero flammability and their boiling point and freezing point temperatures. Studies have reported the thermodynamic properties and equilibrium data of binary difluoromethane (1) and octafluoropropane (2) systems. Thus, this paper aims to model and measure the solid-liquid equilibrium (SLE) data at 1 kPa from published studies. The calculated values of the fugacity ratio of both components in the binary system were used to model the activity coefficient parameters. Lastly, an SLE model for the binary system was generated, which computed the calculated molar fraction at the solid phase from the given molar fractions at the liquid phase and the generated values of phi and the activity coefficient. The Two-Term Margules Equation was found to be the most accurate based on the overall AADz and OF values.

Ethyl acetate, an aliphatic ester produced from the esterification of acetic acid and ethanol, is... more Ethyl acetate, an aliphatic ester produced from the esterification of acetic acid and ethanol, is a widely used solvent across various industries. The global and local demand for the compound has only been steadily increasing. Unfortunately, the Philippines does not have its local processing plant for ethyl acetate. This encouraged the proposition for an ethyl acetate manufacturing plant in San Juan, Batangas City which aims to meet the country’s demand for the raw material with a purity of 99%. The Batangas Ethyl Acetate Production Plant (BEAPP) is expected to supply 933.33 metric tons of the product annually in 2027 sharing 3.54% of the local ethyl acetate market. The processing of the product is divided into three (3) significant steps: esterification, separation, and purification which operates 6,240 hours per year with 3 eight-hour working shifts per day and 3 operators per shift. The plant’s construction will begin in 2024 while the plant’s operation and production of ethyl acetate will start in 2027. Based on the profitability analysis, the return on investment after 2.38 years with an annual net return of $ 47.6 M is 27.69%, which is greater than the minimum acceptable rate of return of 15%. Lastly, the calculated breakeven price is $ 322.12 per kg of ethyl acetate product while the breakeven unit is 3589.81 kg per day. The economic evaluation suggests that BEAPP is viable and feasible.