Omri Bassewitch Frenkel | McGill University (original) (raw)
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Papers by Omri Bassewitch Frenkel
The "Indo-Pacific" Crossroads: The Asian Waters as Conduits of Knowledge, People, Cargoes, and Technologies. Edited by Angela Schottenhammer, 2017
The last decades of the sixteenth century saw the Spanish empire at the height of its splendor. D... more The last decades of the sixteenth century saw the Spanish empire at the height of its splendor. During that period it expanded its sphere of influence beyond the Americas. Motivated by the competition with Portugal over world hegemony, the Asian spice trade, and the desire to convert the people of China, Spain made great efforts to find an alternative route to the Far East, and to establish a foothold in Asian waters. These attempts culminated in 1565, when Miguel Lopez de Legazpi's (1502-1572) expedition had successfully colonized the Philippine Islands. Contrary to Spanish expectations, spices or precious metals were not abundant in the Philippines. In addition, the geographical dispersion and social organization of the local population made it hard to control. This resulted in disappointment on the side of the Spaniards as for the profitability of the Philippine venture. What helped to preserve the Spanish colonization of the Philippines was the trade that evolved between the young colony and China; Chinese commodities, mainly silk products, were exchanged for American silver, and then shipped across the Pacific Ocean to Acapulco. The Chinese side of this commerce was managed by the Chinese merchant community in Manila. However, as early as in the first decade of colonization, it became clear that the Spaniards in Manila were interested in no less than the conquest and evangelization of China. In the three decades that followed, such aspirations were manifested in several petitions sent to King Philip II (1527−1598; r. 1556−1598). So far, scholars have treated these plans as a mere expression of Spanish hubris and religious and territorial aspirations. The following paper suggests that in evaluating this phenomenon, the social configuration of the Spanish-Philippine society is highly significant (although previously overlooked). The colonial society in the Philippines differed significantly from its prototypes in the Americas; from its very beginning it did not generate the resources needed for its existence by using the native labor force, but rather functioned, at least from an economic point of view, as a merchant society. The shift in colonial patterns from one that emphasizes control over land and people to one that relies on trade, was not a smooth shift for the Spanish settlers in the Philippines. This essay will argue that the Spanish plans for the conquest of China were, in
Thesis Chapters by Omri Bassewitch Frenkel
This dissertation focuses on the way in which Crown-sponsored attempts to transplant or domestica... more This dissertation focuses on the way in which Crown-sponsored attempts to transplant or domesticate commercially valuable Asian spices throughout the Spanish empire generated production, circulation and institutionalization of empirical knowledge throughout Spain's imperial domains. Although largely unsuccessful, Spaniards perceived spice transplantations as an important component of Spain's imperial expansion during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Ventures for the introduction or domestication of spices were often initiated and run by networks of settlers, entrepreneurs, officials, friars, and natural historians, who, through empirical observation and experimentation, acquired specific expertise in that field. Successful spice transplantations attracted the attention of Spain's imperial establishments, namely the Council of the Indies and the Casa de Contratación [known also as the "House of Trade"], which, in turn, engaged colonial administrators in Spanish America and the Philippines to call upon relevant experts for information regarding spice cultivation and processing. Consequently, experiments in the introduction and cultivation of spices were conducted in private and Crown estates in Spanish America, the Philippines and Spain, and the results thereof helped formulate Crown policies regulating spice cultivation and trade. It is maintained here that spice transplantation projects reflect an organizational culture in which policies were formed and decisions were made based on expert opinions obtained through empirical observations and experiments. Essentially, the Crown has adopted a scientific approach to direct its policies. Therefore, this study argues that as early as the 1570s, Crown establishments assessed and analyzed complex empirical evidence in variable economic, political, and diplomatic contexts, to form decisions which were perceived to bear critical consequences to Spain's economy and its imperial expansion.
The "Indo-Pacific" Crossroads: The Asian Waters as Conduits of Knowledge, People, Cargoes, and Technologies. Edited by Angela Schottenhammer, 2017
The last decades of the sixteenth century saw the Spanish empire at the height of its splendor. D... more The last decades of the sixteenth century saw the Spanish empire at the height of its splendor. During that period it expanded its sphere of influence beyond the Americas. Motivated by the competition with Portugal over world hegemony, the Asian spice trade, and the desire to convert the people of China, Spain made great efforts to find an alternative route to the Far East, and to establish a foothold in Asian waters. These attempts culminated in 1565, when Miguel Lopez de Legazpi's (1502-1572) expedition had successfully colonized the Philippine Islands. Contrary to Spanish expectations, spices or precious metals were not abundant in the Philippines. In addition, the geographical dispersion and social organization of the local population made it hard to control. This resulted in disappointment on the side of the Spaniards as for the profitability of the Philippine venture. What helped to preserve the Spanish colonization of the Philippines was the trade that evolved between the young colony and China; Chinese commodities, mainly silk products, were exchanged for American silver, and then shipped across the Pacific Ocean to Acapulco. The Chinese side of this commerce was managed by the Chinese merchant community in Manila. However, as early as in the first decade of colonization, it became clear that the Spaniards in Manila were interested in no less than the conquest and evangelization of China. In the three decades that followed, such aspirations were manifested in several petitions sent to King Philip II (1527−1598; r. 1556−1598). So far, scholars have treated these plans as a mere expression of Spanish hubris and religious and territorial aspirations. The following paper suggests that in evaluating this phenomenon, the social configuration of the Spanish-Philippine society is highly significant (although previously overlooked). The colonial society in the Philippines differed significantly from its prototypes in the Americas; from its very beginning it did not generate the resources needed for its existence by using the native labor force, but rather functioned, at least from an economic point of view, as a merchant society. The shift in colonial patterns from one that emphasizes control over land and people to one that relies on trade, was not a smooth shift for the Spanish settlers in the Philippines. This essay will argue that the Spanish plans for the conquest of China were, in
This dissertation focuses on the way in which Crown-sponsored attempts to transplant or domestica... more This dissertation focuses on the way in which Crown-sponsored attempts to transplant or domesticate commercially valuable Asian spices throughout the Spanish empire generated production, circulation and institutionalization of empirical knowledge throughout Spain's imperial domains. Although largely unsuccessful, Spaniards perceived spice transplantations as an important component of Spain's imperial expansion during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Ventures for the introduction or domestication of spices were often initiated and run by networks of settlers, entrepreneurs, officials, friars, and natural historians, who, through empirical observation and experimentation, acquired specific expertise in that field. Successful spice transplantations attracted the attention of Spain's imperial establishments, namely the Council of the Indies and the Casa de Contratación [known also as the "House of Trade"], which, in turn, engaged colonial administrators in Spanish America and the Philippines to call upon relevant experts for information regarding spice cultivation and processing. Consequently, experiments in the introduction and cultivation of spices were conducted in private and Crown estates in Spanish America, the Philippines and Spain, and the results thereof helped formulate Crown policies regulating spice cultivation and trade. It is maintained here that spice transplantation projects reflect an organizational culture in which policies were formed and decisions were made based on expert opinions obtained through empirical observations and experiments. Essentially, the Crown has adopted a scientific approach to direct its policies. Therefore, this study argues that as early as the 1570s, Crown establishments assessed and analyzed complex empirical evidence in variable economic, political, and diplomatic contexts, to form decisions which were perceived to bear critical consequences to Spain's economy and its imperial expansion.