Miranda Horvath | Middlesex University (original) (raw)

Peer-Reviewed Papers by Miranda Horvath

Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology, 2019

This study considers the impacts on staff of supporting people who have reported sexual violence ... more This study considers the impacts on staff of supporting people who have reported sexual violence and attend a Sexual Assault Referral Centre (SARC). This paper focuses on the staff’s perspectives of the stresses and emotional tolls they experience including the coping mechanisms they utilise. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 12 staff, and a focus group was held with a further four staff of a SARC. The data were examined using thematic analysis. Findings indicated that staff experienced positive emotions connected to the meaningfulness of the work and team spirit as well as a range of unpleasant emotions. Staff also reported emotional numbing, in connection to the specificity, volume and sometimes unpredictable nature of the work. Coping mechanisms used by staff focused on the supportive connection to family, nature, and other team members; the value of clinical supervision; and the avoidance of topics related to work.

The Impact of Witnessing Other People's Trauma: The Resilience and Coping Strategies of Members of the Faculty of Forensic and Legal Medicine. , 2018

INTRODUCTION: The coping strategies, resilience and psychological distress of members of the Facu... more INTRODUCTION:
The coping strategies, resilience and psychological distress of members of the Faculty of Forensic and Legal Medicine (FFLM) were measured in an attempt to establish how they are affected by, and accommodate potentially traumatic encounters with patients. Belief in a just world was also measured as it was deemed to be a mediating factor in the psychological distress exhibited in the medical practitioners who participated in this study.

METHODS:
120 members of the FFLM (65 females, 54 males and 1 undisclosed) volunteered to complete an online survey. Data was collected using Survey Monkey. Participants filled out the Personal Belief in a Just World Scale and General Belief in a Just World Scale, as well as the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale 25, the COPE and the Brief Symptom Inventory.

RESULTS:
A multiple regression with stepwise entry was carried out. Personal belief in a just world, coping strategies and resilience were all identified as having a significant relationship with psychological distress.

CONCLUSIONS:
Although this is only a preliminary study into this phenomenon, findings suggest the personal belief in a just world, coping strategies and resilience are useful predictors of psychological distress amongst forensic medical practitioners. However they did not predict the majority of the variance and as such, more detailed investigations are needed to identify which other factors are important in order to design interventions and support for members of the Faculty of Forensic and Legal Medicine and other forensic medical practitioners.

This paper reports on the findings from a study commissioned by the British Transport Police and ... more This paper reports on the findings from a study commissioned by the British Transport Police and the Department for Transport for England and Wales concerning sexual offences and harassment on public transport worldwide. Specifically, it aims to explore the prevalence of such behaviours, through a review of existing survey and interview data regarding women and girls' experiences.
Design/methodology/approach: A Rapid Evidence Assessment (REA) was used, the function of which is to: search the literature as comprehensively as possible within given time constraints; collate descriptive outlines of the available evidence on a topic and critically appraise it; sift out studies of poor quality; and provide an overview of the evidence.
Findings: It was found that prevalence rates range from 15 percent to 95 percent, with the UK having the lowest rates. Emerging economies had higher rates of harassment and assault, which may relate to differing cultural and gender norms, where public space is regarded as a male domain.
Research limitations/implications: A REA is not a full systematic review, differing in the scope and depth of the searches and depending almost exclusively on electronic databases, not accompanied by searching journals by hand.
Practical Implications:
1. More research of high methodological rigour needs to be carried out on prevalence rates of sexual harassment and offending on public transport worldwide.
2. The high prevalence rates found suggest the need for more work around the area of interventions to curtail offending in this setting.
3. The findings suggest that emerging economies, in particular, need to do more to address the problem of sexual harassment and assault on public transport.
4. More fundamentally, cultural norms around women’s role in society need to be addressed and challenged.
Value: Women may become ‘transit captive’ and socially excluded if they are afraid to travel on public transport and do not have access to private transport. This is an unacceptable situation which must be addressed by transport authorities and police.

Exposure to some magazines aimed at young male readers – lads’ mags – has recently been associate... more Exposure to some magazines aimed at young male readers – lads’ mags – has recently been associated with behaviors and attitudes that are derogatory towards women, including sexual violence. In the present study, a group of Spanish adult men were exposed to the covers of a lads’ mag while a second group was exposed to the covers of a neutral magazine. Results showed that, compared to participants in the second group, participants who were exposed to covers of lads’ mags who also showed high rape myth acceptance (RMA) and legitimized the consumption of such magazines reported higher rape proclivity in a hypothetical situation. These findings suggest the need to further explore the possible detrimental effects of some sexualized media that are widely accepted in many Western countries.

Social psychologists have argued that popular UK and USA men’s magazines known as lads’ mags have... more Social psychologists have argued that popular UK and USA men’s magazines known as lads’ mags have normalized hostile sexism among young men. Three studies develop this argument. First, a survey of 423 young UK men found that ambivalent sexism prediced attitudes to the consumption of lads’ mags, but not other forms of direct sexual consumption (paying for sex or patronizing strip clubs). Next, Study 2 (N = 81) found that young men low in sexism rated sexist jokes as less hostile towards women, but not as either funnier nor more ironic, when those jokes were presented within a lads’ mags context. These findings refute the idea that young men readily read lads’ mags’ sexism as ironic or ‘harmless fun.’ They show instead that placing sexist jokes in lads’ mags contexts makes them appear less hostile to young men. The final study (N = 275) demonstrated that young men perceived lads’ mags as less legitimate after attempting to distinguish the contents of lads’ mags from rapists’ legitimations of their crimes. Implications for contemporary studies of masculitities and consumption are discussed.

Purpose – AVA (Against Violence & Abuse) is funded by the Department of Health to deliver the Ste... more Purpose – AVA (Against Violence & Abuse) is funded by the Department of Health to deliver the Stella Project Mental Health Initiative. This project aims to develop and implement models of good practice for responding to survivors and perpetrators of abuse who also have a dual diagnosis. Marking the project's halfway point, this article aims to review what is already understood to be best practice in this area, to present the initial learning from the project evaluation, and to consider the most effective ways of promoting and enabling behaviour change among practitioners.

Design/methodology/approach – The research design for the evaluation is a mixed methods evaluation, drawing on both prospective and retrospective research techniques. The design was developed within an action research framework.

Findings – In line with other research, levels of routine enquiry or enquiry about experiences of violence were low amongst staff from all organisations participating in the project. In comparison staff seem somewhat more likely to enquire about substance misuse and mental health issues. Wide variation in attendance at training was found with a complex relationship between training and confidence emerging.

Originality/value – This paper adds to the growing evidence base to suggest that a lot more training, organisational support and research is needed to ensure that professionals who have contact with women who have experienced abuse, have mental health or substance use problems are asking their clients about all three issues, making appropriate referrals and ensuring victims with complex needs having access to protection and support.

Psychology Crime & Law, 2011

Much of the existing knowledge base of multiple perpetrator rape (MPR) comes from studies underta... more Much of the existing knowledge base of multiple perpetrator rape (MPR) comes from studies undertaken more than 20 years ago, and thus fails to integrate contemporary perspectives on sexual violence. The current study used Grounded Theory methodology to construct a holistic model of MPR from 15 victim accounts. The model of multiple perpetrator rape (MMPR) included both the actions of the perpetrators and the reactions of the victim in a temporal sequence of 13 categories, 9 of which had sub-categories that allowed for individual differences. Broad themes of MPR were then explored using a total of 101 cases. Each case was coded in the 9 sub-categories where individual differences were allowed from the model. An associative analysis of these sub-categories was then performed using Smallest Space Analysis. Two dominant themes were displayed. The Manipulate theme included two perpetrators who offended sequentially and socialised with the victim. The Force theme did not involve any social interaction, as the force and teamwork of the group enabled the victim to be physically overpowered.

This commentary is a precursor to a forthcoming study exploring young men’s consumption of lads’ ... more This commentary is a precursor to a forthcoming study exploring young men’s consumption of lads’ mags – lifestyle magazines aimed at young men that feature young women in sexualized poses – specifically, their implications for men’s attitudes
towards women and sexual aggression. Here we give an overview of existing research that has informed our research questions, in order to initiate discussions about the impacts of lads’ mags on male readers.

We argue that in an increasingly sexualized media environment, lads’ mags serve as a powerful tool in the mainstreaming of sexist images and ideals. Whilst we acknowledge the complexity of debates on whether sexually explicit materials cause individuals to be more violent/aggressive, we propose that there is nevertheless merit in exploring lads’ mags as a genre that affects readers’ perceptions of, and attitudes towards, women, sex and sexuality.

Criminal Justice and Behavior, 2010

Some consistency in existing typologies of rape has been found, which have extended from lone to ... more Some consistency in existing typologies of rape has been found, which have extended from lone to multiple perpetrator
offenses. The current study sought to explore the facets of multiple-perpetrator rape (MPR) in a sample representative of one
geographical area. Seventy-five victim statements of MPR reported to an urban police force in the United Kingdom were
classified into a qualitative model denoting offender actions in MPR. Four types from pathways through the model were
produced: violence, criminality, intimacy, and sexuality. Analysis of the crime scene variables provided additional evidence
of the four types. Finally, the associations between the four types and offense characteristics, such as victim and perpetrator
age, were explored. Implications of these findings for the prevention and investigation of MPR are discussed along with
suggestions for future research directions.

Multiple perpetrator rape presents a significant problem nationally and internationally. However,... more Multiple perpetrator rape presents a significant problem nationally and internationally. However, previous research is limited and findings are often contradictory. The details of 101 rape allegations recorded in a six-month period in a large police force in England were analysed. Findings are presented about case classification, victim and perpetrator characteristics, approach and assault location, perpetrator group composition and victim targeting. The discussion of the findings is used as a basis to explore the pitfalls and benefits of the established naming and definition of this offence. Local and colloquial terms (e.g. “gang bang” and “streamlining”) as well as academic terminology (e.g. “group” and “gang” rape) are considered. The paper concludes by proposing an overarching term “multiple perpetrator” rape that allows a series of subtypes to be developed both locally and transnationally.

Sexual age-of-consent violations involving adult–adolescent relationships (AARs) are sometimes vi... more Sexual age-of-consent violations involving adult–adolescent relationships (AARs) are sometimes viewed with ambivalence by the media and are infrequently prosecuted. Two studies conducted in Britain (where the age of consent is 16) examined influences on disapproval of minimally presented AARs between a 14-year-old and a 30-year-old. In Study 1, AARs involving an older man were seen as more harmful and objectionable than those involving an older woman. A second study on a jury-eligible adult population replicated Study 1's gender effects, and also found a difference between legal knowledge and personal belief that the older person had committed a crime. Gender effects in both studies were mediated by perceived harm and emotions.

Building on previous research which identified alcohol as the drug of choice for facilitating sex... more Building on previous research which identified alcohol as the drug of choice for facilitating sexual assaults, this paper analysed 93 rape cases reported to the police in which the victim was under the influence of drugs/alcohol when the assault occurred. The aim was to explore what substances victims consumed to become incapacitated and who induced the state of incapacity. The degree of pre-planning suggests that the offender could be described as opportunistic or predatory. Findings demonstrated that the majority of rapes (coming to police notice) in which alcohol or drugs are implicated, are circumstances where the victim has self-intoxicated through alcohol consumption. There were relatively few cases in which drugs had been administered surreptitiously. The analyses successfully identified differences between rapes that occur when the victim is intoxicated or drugged according to how she consumed that alcohol/drug and what kind of alcohol/drugs she had consumed. The concept of negotiative space is offered as a potential theoretical explanation. The findings are discussed in the light of this and recommendations for crime prevention are made.

Rape is a difficult subject to research ethically and there are many methodological conundrums wh... more Rape is a difficult subject to research ethically and there are many methodological conundrums when collecting and interpreting data. Previously a number of techniques have been employed, for example: vignettes, trial observations and case tracking. This paper will focus on the use of police data for empirical investigations of rape. Initially consideration will be given to the difficulties in gaining access and ensuring ethical concerns and matters of confidentiality and anonymity are adequately addressed. The paper will then address the advantages and disadvantages of using such a dataset including accuracy,
missing data and using data. The paper also includes the initial findings of a study using police data to investigate rapes where the victim was under the influence of alcohol or drugs when the rape occurred.

Medicine Science and The Law, 2006

Alcohol and drugs have been inextricably linked with sexual assault. Media coverage has increasin... more Alcohol and drugs have been inextricably linked with sexual assault. Media coverage has increasingly highlighted the health risks facing intoxicated women and more recently identified the risk of rape as an additional hazard. Using a sample of rape cases
reported to the police between 1999 and 2004, this paper establishes that rapes involving intoxicants (alcohol and/or drugs) are distinguishable from those which do not. Further analysis discovered that the identity of the intoxicated parties (i.e. men, women, neither or both) is important in differentiating rapes.
Results report differences by location of assault, victim offender relationship, victim and offender characteristics and offence behaviours. A consistent finding from the analysis is that the victim’s state of sobriety or inebriation appears more significant than that of the offender. The implications for crime prevention and directions for future research are discussed.

This paper reviews the limited literature on drug-assisted rape (DAR) and develops definitions an... more This paper reviews the limited literature on drug-assisted rape (DAR) and develops definitions and constructs. A novel data gathering method, the multiple sorting task, was adopted to explore lay understanding of DAR. Participants (N = 8) were drawn from the general public. Each of the 21 stimulus cards used had the name of one sexual or romantic encounter printed on it. Participants completed one fixed sort in terms of the motivation of the male involved in the encounter. Data were analysed by means of multiple scalogram analysis (MSA). Findings show that the key factors for distinguishing sexual and romantic encounters are whether the behaviour is: consensual, contracted or forced; planned or impulsive; motivated primarily by the desire for sex or for a relationship. When motivation of the offender is considered, drug-assisted rape and sexual assault is distinguishable from other consensual sexual behaviours but not from other types of rape. Findings are discussed in terms of the limitations of the present study, the need for further research and practical applications for assisting police enquiries. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Books by Miranda Horvath

This comprehensive volume deciphers investigative process and practice, providing an authoritativ... more This comprehensive volume deciphers investigative process and practice, providing an authoritative insight into key debates and contemporary issues in crime investigations
- Provides critical examination of investigative practice by focusing on the key issues and debates underpinned by academic literature on crime investigation
- Outlines the theoretical explanations that provide an understanding of crime investigation and the context in which investigators operate
- Illustrates the practical relevance of theoretical contributions to crime investigation
- Places clear emphasis on the multi-disciplinary nature of crime investigation

Rape remains one of the most controversial issues within criminal justice and receives high profi... more Rape remains one of the most controversial issues within criminal justice and receives high profile coverage internationally. Despite the many changes there have been to the law, practice and procedure in the investigation of rape allegations, and support available for victims, victims are routinely blamed for their victimization. Only a very small number of perpetrators ever face prosecution, let alone conviction.

This book aims to take stock of current thinking and research about rape and the way it is handled in practice within the criminal justice system, and to challenge some of the widely held but inaccurate beliefs about rape. It brings together leading researchers in the field from psychology, sociology and law, considering new research and presenting new data from a strong theoretical and contextual base.

The main focus of the book is on adult victims of rape, with chapters exploring such issues as rape and the media, the use of alcohol and drugs in rape, police decision making on rape cases, conviction patterns in rape trials, and interviewing victims of rape and sexual assault.

Whilst there is considerable literature on rape from various perspectives, there is very little t... more Whilst there is considerable literature on rape from various perspectives, there is very little that focuses on rape committed by multiple perpetrators (also referred to as group or gang rape). For the first time, this handbook brings together international multi-disciplinary perspectives on multiple perpetrator rape.

The book is organised to provide readers with a comprehensive account of the thinking, theorising and empirical evidence on multiple perpetrator rape to date. Aspects covered include: different contexts in which multiple perpetrator rape occurs such as gangs, war, fraternities, South Africa; experiences of women and girls as victims and perpetrators; offence characteristics such as leadership and role taking, aggression and violence; the importance of group size; the prosecution of and treatment of offenders; and approaches to prevention.

The contributions to this collection are written by leading academics and practitioners from a variety of disciplines who bring together research and practice on multiple perpetrator rape by presenting new data from a strong theoretical and contextual base. This book will be a key text for students and academics studying multiple perpetrator rape and an essential reference tool for professionals working in the field including police officers, educationalists, forensic psychologists, youth workers, probation staff, lawyers, judges and policy makers.

Book Reviews by Miranda Horvath

Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling, 2004

Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology, 2019

The Impact of Witnessing Other People's Trauma: The Resilience and Coping Strategies of Members of the Faculty of Forensic and Legal Medicine. , 2018

Psychology Crime & Law, 2011

Criminal Justice and Behavior, 2010

Medicine Science and The Law, 2006

Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling, 2004

"I wasn’t sure it was normal to watch it…” A quantitative and qualitative examination of the impact of online pornography on the values, attitudes, beliefs and behaviours of children and young people. Revised and Updated Project Report. , 2017

We are also indebted to the expert members of the independent advisory board who gave up their ev... more We are also indebted to the expert members of the independent advisory board who gave up their evenings and weekends to comment on drafts and to provide useful feedback throughout. The members of the board were:

In Britain, public transport is generally very safe and serious sexual assaults are rare. However... more In Britain, public transport is generally very safe and serious sexual assaults are rare. However, research has found that around 15% of women and girls have been subjected to unwanted sexual behaviour on the London transport network, the vast majority of which goes unreported (Transport for London [TfL], 2013a). Such behaviours cover a wide spectrum and may include anything from being stared at, propositioned, followed, pictured, rubbed against, touched, or raped. Being a victim of such behaviours can have serious psychological and behavioural effects and may result in women and members of vulnerable groups being too afraid to use public transport.
British Transport Police (BTP) is already involved in initiatives to address these areas of concern. In partnership with the Department for Transport and as part of their on-going commitment to increasing safety for female passengers, BTP co-commissioned this work in order to explore the key research question:
‘What works in reducing sexual harassment and sexual offending on public transport nationally and internationally?’
To investigate this question, a team of researchers from Forensic Psychological Services (FPS) at Middlesex University conducted a Rapid Evidence Assessment (REA), the results of which are considered in this report.

"It's a lonely journey': A Rapid Evidence Assessment on Intrafamilial Child Sexual Abuse, Jul 3, 2014

Concerns about child sexual abuse within the family environment were raised by the Office of the ... more Concerns about child sexual abuse within the family environment were raised by the Office of the Children’s Commissioner’s (OCC) Inquiry into child sexual exploitation in gangs and groups. This found that:
…so many young people told us…of their early histories of being sexually abused within the family home and of their experiences never being acknowledged (Berelowitz, Clifton, Firmin, Gulyurtlu and Edwards, 2013, p.96).
This prompted the OCC to commit to a new two year Inquiry into child sexual abuse within the family environment, for which this report forms the evidence base.
This Inquiry is necessary due to questions surrounding the possible under-reporting of child sexual abuse within the family environment and the lack of research which captures the direct views of victims. Specifically, there is an apparent lack of evidence in regards to their experiences of the child protection system and criminal justice system. The OCC commissioned Middlesex University to assess:

1. What is known about the nature, scale, scope and impact of intrafamilial child sexual abuse or child sexual abuse linked to the family environment? Where do the gaps in knowledge lie?

2. What is known from the evidence about child protection and other action in response to victims of intrafamilial child sexual abuse or child sexual abuse linked to the family environment? Where are the gaps in these approaches?

3. What are the implications of the above when considering child protection activity and any legislative or formal guidance required to tackle intrafamilial child sexual abuse or child sexual abuse linked to the family environment?

In order to answer these questions, we used a method known as rapid evidence assessment (REA). This is a tool for synthesising the available research evidence on a policy issue as comprehensively as possible, within the constraints of a given timetable.

In 2011/12, a 15 month pilot took place in three police force areas (Greater Manchester, West Mer... more In 2011/12, a 15 month pilot took place in three police force areas (Greater Manchester, West Mercia and Wiltshire) to test a new civil provision, Domestic Violence Protection Orders (DVPOs). DVPOs were designed to provide immediate protection for victim-survivors following a domestic violence incident in circumstances where, in the view of the police, there are no other enforceable restrictions that can be placed upon the perpetrator. DVPOs aim to give victim-survivors time, space and support to consider their options by placing conditions on perpetrators, including restricting/removing perpetrators from households, and preventing contact with, or molestation of, victim-survivors.

The approach, introduced by the Crime and Security Act 2010, comprises an initial temporary notice (Domestic Violence Protection Notice, DVPN), authorised by a senior police officer and issued to the perpetrator by the police, followed by a DVPO that can last from 14 to 28 days, imposed at the magistrates’ court.

An evaluation was conducted which aimed to address the following:
1. How were DVPOs implemented and delivered across the three pilot sites?
2. What did practitioners, victim-survivors and perpetrators think about DVPOs?
3. Were DVPOs effective in reducing domestic violence across the pilot sites?
4. What was the value for money of the pilot?

A mixed-methods approach was followed, comprising both qualitative and quantitative elements. Surveys, interviews and focus groups were used to gain an understanding of how DVPOs had been implemented, process issues, and the views of victim-survivors, perpetrators and practitioners. The main quantitative elements of the evaluation aimed to provide an estimate of the impact of the pilot on victimisation and assess its value for money.

The impact of DVPOs on re-victimisation was examined by comparing differences in the numbers of pre and post domestic violence incidents between DVPO cases and matched, similar cases where DVPOs were not used. Cases were matched on key variables associated with future risk; however, this approach does not allow us to conclusively rule out an unmeasured factor being responsible for any observed effects. Police incident data were considered the best available measure of re-victimisation, although they are potentially subject to reporting issues.

Finally, the team would like to thank their families and friends, who allowed them to "check out"... more Finally, the team would like to thank their families and friends, who allowed them to "check out" of normal life and conduct a Rapid Evidence Assessment for three months! What can we confidently conclude? FINDING 1 (RQ1, P21): A significant proportion of children and young people are exposed to or access pornography but there are differences in the literature regarding the regularity of exposure and access (or the rate of recurrence) which highlight the importance of considering frequency as well as prevalence in order to obtain a full picture.

Prepared by Jennifer Holly (AVA) 2013 Background

In 1977 a poll of opinions on rape was commissioned by the Daily Mail, partly in response to a ra... more In 1977 a poll of opinions on rape was commissioned by the Daily Mail, partly in response to a rape case which was widely reported in the press at the time because of a particularly lenient sentence.1 The poll asked respondents about which offence types they saw as most serious, whether they thought these offences had increased, whether they personally knew someone who had been raped, whether they agreed or disagreed with a range of statements about rape victims and offenders, what factors they thought should be and actually were taken into consideration when considering punishment for those found guilty of rape, and how women should react if they were raped.The results of this poll were reported in the Daily Mail on 1 July 1977.

In 2009, we were appointed as a team of academics to conduct a rapid evidence assessment to inform the Government’s Stern Review on rape (Brown et al., 2010). One of the questions we were asked was whether there was any evidence of attitudinal changes to rape over time.This was difficult to answer with the available evidence, since surveys asked different questions and used different populations.Therefore, in February 2010 the 1977 survey was re-run and a comparative analysis conducted.This report provides an overview of the key findings.

... 2007 © Maddy Coy, Miranda Horvath and Liz Kelly All rights reserved. ... Special thanks go to... more ... 2007 © Maddy Coy, Miranda Horvath and Liz Kelly All rights reserved. ... Special thanks go to PC Susan Haynes and PCSO Mohammed Ullah who enthusiastically gave so much of their time to help develop and administer the questionnaires with men arrested for kerb crawling. ...

This review was commissioned by the Ministry of Justice and considers international literature co... more This review was commissioned by the Ministry of Justice and considers international
literature concerning the management of young people who have offended. It was produced
to inform youth justice policy and practice. The review focuses on the impact and delivery of
youth justice supervision, programmes and interventions within the community, secure
settings, and during transition into adult justice settings or into mainstream society.

Terms of reference This report represents the collective views and expertise of a panel of academ... more Terms of reference
This report represents the collective views and expertise of a panel of academic experts
convened by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport. Panel members drafted
individual responses to specified questions, then met in a policy forum on the 2nd March
2015. The panel was initially tasked with providing ‘an evidence-based narrative on
children’s routes to viewing hard-core pornography online and identifying challenges and
opportunities for future policy-makers seeking to limit young people’s viewing of hard-core
pornography online’. To clarify the scope of our discussions, we delimited the terms of
debate more narrowly. Specifically, the panel agreed that this report should cover:
 Viewing of pornography (rather than ‘hard-core’ pornography), where this is defined
as ‘Sexually explicit media that are primarily intended to sexually arouse the
audience’ (Malamuth 2001);
 By children1
up to 18 years old, even though much of the research summarised
below covers just a portion of this age group;
 Using Internet or mobile technologies (rather than just ‘online’) insofar as this allows
discussion of materials transmitted directly from one child to another using a phone
or other mobile device without requiring an Internet connection. For brevity, we
continue to use the word ‘online’ when considering findings, but individual studies
may be discussed with reference to more specific types of connectivity.
The report that follows was compiled by the lead author, with all panel members
contributing to its drafting. Where possible, we have sought to indicate the extent of
agreement or dissent in the research base in order to clarify the weight of opinion behind
the various claims and recommendations.

A few robust conclusions can be reached from this REA, but it is apparent that much more research... more A few robust conclusions can be reached from this REA, but it is apparent that much more research
is needed. Gender differences have emerged as a continuous and highly pertinent theme throughout
the questions addressed by this REA.
“Basically... porn is everywhere” | A Rapid Evidence Assessment on the Effects that Access and Exposure to Pornography has on Children and Young People
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What can we confidently conclude?
FINDING 1 (RQ1, P21): A significant proportion of children and young people are exposed
to or access pornography but there are differences in the literature regarding the regularity of
exposure and access (or the rate of recurrence) which highlight the importance of considering
frequency as well as prevalence in order to obtain a full picture.
FINDING 2 (RQ1, P24): Children and young people’s exposure and access to pornography
occur both online and offline. However, in recent years the most common methods of access
have changed from magazines, videos, television and books, with the internet becoming more
dominant. There is some evidence that children and young people consider pornography easy to
access and culturally prevalent. Accessing pornography through one method appears to be positively
related to accessing it through others.
FINDING 3 (RQ1, P23): Exposure and access to pornography appear to increase with age;
there is greater risk of exposure with increasing age. Contradictory findings exist in relation to age of
first exposure, with variations from 10 to 17 years old.
FINDING 4 (RQ1, P22): Exposure is more prevalent than (ostensibly) deliberate access.
However, there is considerable variation in the rates of unwanted exposure and some studies report
significant numbers of children and young people accessing pornography.
FINDING 5 (RQ1, P23): There are gender differences in exposure and access to
pornography. Young men and boys are more likely to be exposed to pornography than young
women and girls. They are also more likely to access, seek or use pornography and are exposed
to or access pornography more frequently. These gender differences are also found in children and
young people’s attitudes towards pornography. Boys and young men generally view pornography
more positively and state that they view it primarily out of curiosity while girls and young women
generally report that it is unwelcome and socially distasteful and that they feel much more
uncomfortable than boys and young men when viewing pornography.
FINDING 6 (RQ2, P34): Access and exposure to pornography affect children and young
people’s sexual beliefs. For example, pornography has been linked to unrealistic attitudes
about sex; maladaptive attitudes about relationships; more sexually permissive attitudes; greater
acceptance of casual sex; beliefs that women are sex objects; more frequent thoughts about sex;
sexual uncertainty (e.g. the extent to which children and young people are unclear about their sexual
beliefs and values); and less progressive gender role attitudes (e.g. male dominance and female
submission). Children and young people learn from and may change their behaviour due to exposure
and access to pornography.
FINDING 7 (RQ2, P36): Access and exposure to pornography are linked to children and
young people’s engagement in “risky behaviours” (e.g. engagement in sexual practices from
a younger age, engaging in riskier sexual behaviours such as unprotected anal or oral sex, and the
involvement of drugs and alcohol in sex). For example, young people who used pornography were
more likely to report having had anal sex, sex with multiple partners and using alcohol and drugs
during sex (Braun-Courville & Rojas, 2009). However, the majority of the research that has found this
is cross-sectional and/or correlational, therefore causal relationships cannot be established. “Sexting”
(which should be considered as comprising a range of activities) has recently emerged as another
“risky behaviour” because it can lead to various negative outcomes for children and young people,
8
including through its potential use within bullying and exploitation. The majority of the harassment that
is a consequence of sexting is directed by young men towards young women (Ringrose et al., 2012).
FINDING 8 (RQ3, P47): Considering sexualised and violent imagery more broadly, we can conclude
that exposure to sexualised and violent imagery affects children and young people; however,
the ways in which they may be affected and how long-lasting the effects may be are debatable. There
are links between violent attitudes and violent media; specifically, children and young people who
hold more violent attitudes access more violent media. One study found that exposure to sexualised
material was related to the likelihood of young people engaging in more sexualised behaviour
because they perceived more social pressure to have sex (Bleakley et al., 2011b).

This paper presents findings about young people’s experiences with online pornography. It draws o... more This paper presents findings about young people’s experiences with online pornography. It draws on data from the first national survey of secondary school boys and girls regarding their attitudes and feelings about online pornography, whether viewing it deliberately or accidentally. To our knowledge, this is the most extensive survey of 11-16 year olds regarding online pornography. The sample is representative of the four nations of the UK and includes boys and girls. The project was designed and run by academics from Middlesex University. It was implemented in conjunction with ResearchBods.

... Horvath, MAH and Giner-Sorolla, RS (2007) Below the age of consent: Double standards, context... more ... Horvath, MAH and Giner-Sorolla, RS (2007) Below the age of consent: Double standards, context effects, and mediating judgments in ... Sexual age-of-consent violations involving adultadolescent relationships (AARs) are sometimes viewed with ambivalence by the media and ...

Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2015

Exposure to some magazines aimed at young male readers-lads&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;a... more Exposure to some magazines aimed at young male readers-lads&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39; mags-has recently been associated with behaviors and attitudes that are derogatory toward women, including sexual violence. In the present study, a group of Spanish adult men was exposed to the covers of a lads&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39; mag while a second group was exposed to the covers of a neutral magazine. Results showed that, compared with participants in the second group, participants who were exposed to covers of lads&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39; mags who also showed high rape myth acceptance and legitimized the consumption of such magazines reported higher rape proclivity in a hypothetical situation. These findings suggest the need to further explore the possible detrimental effects of some sexualized media that are widely accepted in many Western countries.

What is it about rape that makes it so difficult to report, investigate and successfully prosecut... more What is it about rape that makes it so difficult to report, investigate and successfully prosecute? This article proposes that a psychological analysis of the criminal justice system is needed to understand its apparent resistance to decades of attempts at reforming rape law, and to develop procedures that are not inhibitory to people reporting offences or authorities’ investigation and prosecution of them. In particular, an understanding of rape stereotypes and the attrition problem are needed if we are to restore faith in the criminal justice system.

Handbook on Sexual Violence, 2013