Jude Nnaji | Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike, Abia State, Nigeria (original) (raw)

Papers by Jude Nnaji

The removal of emerging contaminants from the environment has been an issue of top priority in re... more The removal of emerging contaminants from the environment has been an issue of top priority in recent times due to their adverse ecological effects. Nanomaterials have proven their worth in the search for effective and efficient remediation materials for wastewaters. The chemical methods of nanomaterial synthesis with co-precipitation being the simplest and the biological methods using plants provide ease of fabrication and make them economical too. Characterizations are done using different techniques such as powder XRD, electronic microscopy, atomic force microscopy and thermogravimetric analysis and these give information about the morphology, particle size, impurities, roughness, thermal stability and degradation pattern of nanomaterials. Nanomaterials often find application in adsorption, photocatalysis, catalytic ozonation, membrane process and nanoremediation of environmental pollution.

Ecological risk assessment of heavy metals at five dumpsites (1 – 5) in Umuahia, Nigeria was carr... more Ecological risk assessment of heavy metals at five dumpsites (1 – 5) in Umuahia, Nigeria was carried out. Soil samples were collected at distances of 0, 5 and 10 m from each dumpsite and from a control site. Samples of water leaf and African Spinach leaf were also collected and analysed for heavy metal ions. Soil physicochemical parameters were determined using official and recommended methods while heavy metal ion concentrations were determined using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer. Results obtained indicated that the texture of soil samples were predominantly sandy loam while pH values ranged from 6.21±0.37 to 7.70±0.29. Organic matter content ranged from 1.65±0.52 to 4.15±0.36 % while electrical conductivity had a range of 98.47±7.25 – 201.57±15.86 μS/cm across the dumpsites. Mean concentrations of heavy metal ions in soils from the dumpsites were significantly higher (P < 0.05) than those from the control site. Average metal pollution indices showed that soils in the dump...

The study was conducted in order to determine the effect of metallic manual grinding machine on m... more The study was conducted in order to determine the effect of metallic manual grinding machine on metal concentrations in food condiments. Food condiments (tomato, crayfish, dika nut, melon and pepper) were purchased from three local markets (Ndoro, Ubani and Ahiaeke) and were each divided into two parts. One part of each condiment from a specific market was pulverized with plastic mortar and pestle while the other part was pulverized using manual grinding machine. In all, three different metallic grinders (Corona ® brand) were used for the three condiment lots from the three markets. The samples (plastic mortar samples, PMS and metallic grinder samples, MGS) were digested with HNO3 and aqua regia and analyzed for metals (Fe, Zn, Cr and Ni) using Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (FAAS). The results show enrichment of condiment samples with the metals as a result of the use of the metallic grinder for crushing them since metal concentrations were higher in all metallic grinder...

The main objective of the study was to characterize and esterify ten waste frying oil (WFO) sampl... more The main objective of the study was to characterize and esterify ten waste frying oil (WFO) samples collected from fried food vendors and analyse their suitability as feedstock for biodiesel production. The parameters of the WFOs analyzed included; colour, odour, pH, specific gravity, kinematic viscosity (Oswald viscometer), moisture content (oven drying method), iodine value, saponification value, acid value and saponification value. Esterification was carried out to lower the free fatty acid (FFA) contents of the waste frying oils. Mean values for specific gravity varied from 0.892±0.022 to 0.905±0.075 g/cm 3 . The mean kinematic viscosity of the WFOs ranged from 43.120 ±1.530 to 97.530 ±6.360 mm 2 /s. The mean acid value obtained varied from 2.730 ±0.404 to 16.956 ±3.806 mg/g while the mean free fatty acid concentration in the WFO ranged from 1.95 ±0.17 to 12.09 ±2.11 mg/g. Results indicated that WFOs used for frying fish may not be good feedstocks for biodiesel production since ...

Proximate and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) compositions were analyzed in raw and smoked ... more Proximate and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) compositions were analyzed in raw and smoked samples of two exotic fish species; mackerel (Scomber scombrus) and horse mackerel (Trachurus trachurus) obtained from a local market in Umuahia, Nigeria. The fish were procured in triplicate and split into two equal parts. One part was analyzed raw while the other was smoked w i t h f i r e w o o d b e f o r e a n a l y s i s . Moisture content was higher in the raw samples compared to their corresponding smoked samples. Crude protein was higher in horse mackerel samples for both raw and smoked categories while other parameters were generally higher in mackerel. Horse mackerel had the higher value of 44.784 mg/kg for total mean PAH (mPAH) but PAH4 (sum of the four indicators of PAH contamination; benzo[a]pyrene, benz[a]anthracene, benzo[b]fluoranthene and chrysene) was similar in raw mackerel and horse mackerel. Mean BaP concentrations were higher than the EU limits (2 μg/kg) while PAH...

Physico-chemical parameters of sediments samples collected from a 1.5 ha reservoir which was amen... more Physico-chemical parameters of sediments samples collected from a 1.5 ha reservoir which was amended with organic manure over a fifteen year period were analysed and mean pH, conductivity, organic matter, nitrate and total nitrogen had values of 7.57 ±0.80, 355.7 ±115.71 μScm -1 , 8.78 ±1.83 %, 12.12 ±5.53 mg kg -1 and 49.70 ±21.81 mg kg -1 , respectively. Total phosphorus, available phosphorus and cation exchange capacity had mean values of 74.61 ±41.50 mg kg -1 , 12.46 ±5.84 mg kg -1 and 16.48 ±4.72 mmol cm -1 , respectively. Total heavy metals were determined in the samples and mean Zn concentration was significantly higher (P<0.05) than the mean concentrations of other metals. The profile of mean metal concentrations in the bed sediments was Zn>Cu>Pb>Ni>Cr>Cd. Mean Cd, Cu and Zn concentrations exceed the USEPA (1997) threshold effect levels in sediments and this is due to the long term application of manure without the dredging of the reservoir.

The leaves of Acanthus montanus are used in traditional herbal practices in South Eastern Nigeria... more The leaves of Acanthus montanus are used in traditional herbal practices in South Eastern Nigeria and in some other parts of West Africa for the treatment of gonorrhoea, syphilis, wounds and boils. Other uses of A. montanus in herbal medicine include the treatment of hypertension, cardiac dysfunctions, hepatitis and heart diseases. The chemical constituents of the ethanolic extract of the leaves of A. montanus were characterized using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS) technique and nine compounds were identified which include 2,6-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-4-methyl phenol (13.68 %), allyl(2-tetrahydrofuryl methoxy)dimethylsilane (3.86 %), sulfurous acid cyclohexylmethyl hexyl ester (5.67 %), alpha-methyl 4methylmannoside (8.41 %), hexadecanoic acid methyl ester (16.12 %), 11-octadecenoic acid methyl ester (19.03 %), docosane (5.85 %), N,N-dimethylvaleramide (18.62 %) and 2,6,10,15-tetramethyl heptadecane (8.76 %). The extract exhibited marked antibacterial activity against St...

Biodiesel is a renewable, clean-burning, and biodegradable fuel which can be synthesized from rea... more Biodiesel is a renewable, clean-burning, and biodegradable fuel which can be synthesized from readily available domestic and natural sources, such as edible, non-edible and waste cooking oils, which may serve as a substitute to petro-diesel. It is produced by catalytic transesterification of fats and oils. A number of researches has been devoted to discovering a benign catalyst, especially heterogeneous acid catalyst that could convert non-edible and waste cooking oils with high free fatty acid into biodiesel, in an attempt to reduce the cost of production. The cost of production of biodiesel is still far higher than that of conventional petro-diesel, owing to the cost of edible oil currently being used, processes involved, and cost of conventional heterogeneous catalysts employed. This study assessed the role of various catalysts; homogeneous, heterogenous and enzyme-catalyzed transesterification reactions, in terms of their advantages and disadvantages in biodiesel production in o...

Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery

In this research, a novel green tillite-based adsorbent (CMT) was synthesized by modifying the su... more In this research, a novel green tillite-based adsorbent (CMT) was synthesized by modifying the surface of natural/pristine tillite (PT) with Chrysophyllum albidum stem bark extract for the efficient removal of Cr(VI) from water. The physicochemical characteristics of PT and CMT were assessed by the use of the FTIR, XRD, BET, TGA, and SEM techniques. Cardinal adsorptive parameters such as solution pH, contact time, adsorbent dose, and initial concentration were used to optimize the efficiency of PT and CMT for Cr(VI) adsorption. The Elovich kinetic model was noticed to best describe the uptake of Cr(VI) onto PT and CMT. Hence, chemisorption was the rate-controlling step for Cr(VI) uptake onto both PT and CMT. Meanwhile, the Langmuir maximum adsorption capacity of PT and CMT was 51.06 and 291.8 mg g−1 respectively, which was higher than those obtained for most materials used for Cr(VI) uptake. The Langmuir and Freundlich models best describe the equilibrium adsorption data for PT and CMT respectively. The reusability assessment of PT and CMT showed over 90% of the initial Cr(VI) uptake even after the fifth cycle of reuse. Electrostatic interaction and reduction of Cr(VI) were responsible for the removal of Cr(VI) from water onto the green material. The uptake of Cr(VI) was thermodynamically feasible, entropy-driven, and endothermic on both PT and CMT. The outcome of this study revealed that the anchoring of Chrysophyllum albidum stem bark extract on tillite produced a green adsorbent, which was highly efficient for the removal of Cr(VI) from polluted water.

Applied Water Science

The toxic effects of anionic dyes such as tartrazine and sunset yellow on humans and the aquatic ... more The toxic effects of anionic dyes such as tartrazine and sunset yellow on humans and the aquatic environment are of serious concern. The need for the removal of these dyes from wastewaters led to the use of adsorption techniques as a cheap and efficient treatment method. Thus, this research was based on the preparation of a low-cost activated carbon derived from cassava sievate designated as CS, which was utilized in the adsorption of sunset yellow and tartrazine from simulated wastewater. The sorption process was carried out under varying process factors in a batch mode. Adsorbent characterization displayed the presence of surface functional groups by the FT-IR and a porous structure as revealed by scanning electron microscopy. Optimum dye uptake was recorded at pH (1.0–2.0), temperature (30–40 °C), CS dosage (0.1 g), and dye concentration (150 mg/L). A maximum CS monolayer uptake of 20.83 and 0.091 mg/g was recorded for tartrazine and sunset yellow dyes, respectively. The pseudo-s...

Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management

The effects of smoking on proximate composition, energy values and concentrations of polycyclic a... more The effects of smoking on proximate composition, energy values and concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were studied in raw and smoked samples of catfish (Clarias gariepinus) and tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Crude protein was higher in the tilapia sample for both raw and smoked samples. There was significant difference (P<0.05) in the lipid contents of raw and smoked samples of both species. Mean naphthalene concentration was significantly higher (P<0.05) than those of other PAHs analyzed in raw and smoked samples of both species. Mean benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) concentrations and total mean PAH concentrations (mPAH) exceeded the EU limits in raw muscle samples. All the PAHs analyzed were detected in the smoked samples. Mean BaP concentrations and total mean PAH exceeded the EU maximum limits (2.0 and 10 µg/kg) in the muscle of smoked fish and fishery products. Total mean concentration of the four indicators of PAH contamination gave the values of 0.018 and 0.050; 0.014 and 0.012 mg/kg for raw and smoked samples of catfish and tilapia respectively. It could be inferred that the smoking process generally increased the mean total PAH levels in the fish samples and there is urgent need for relevant authorities to take appropriate action due to the public health implications of PAH contamination.

Publishing Research Quarterly

This review X-rays the issue of illegitimate (predatory) academic publishing of books, monographs... more This review X-rays the issue of illegitimate (predatory) academic publishing of books, monographs, journals and conference proceedings which is a topical issue globally as a result of the damage it does to academic quality and the society. It looks at the dilemma faced by researchers in developing countries in terms of publishing research results. It tries to give clear descriptions of the qualities of legitimate and illegitimate academic publishers and academic conference organizers. It suggests several solutions and protocols for addressing illegitimate publishing at the levels of individual researchers; institutions and learned societies; government and society; and international and regional groups with due attention paid to country-specific conditions and academic inequalities between the developed and developing world. Since the issue affects both researchers in developed and developing countries, a sustainable global action at the highest levels of government is advocated in the drive to reduce illegitimate academic publishing to the barest minimum globally.

The removal of emerging contaminants from the environment has been an issue of top priority in re... more The removal of emerging contaminants from the environment has been an issue of top priority in recent times due to their adverse ecological effects. Nanomaterials have proven their worth in the search for effective and efficient remediation materials for wastewaters. The chemical methods of nanomaterial synthesis with co-precipitation being the simplest and the biological methods using plants provide ease of fabrication and make them economical too. Characterizations are done using different techniques such as powder XRD, electronic microscopy, atomic force microscopy and thermogravimetric analysis and these give information about the morphology, particle size, impurities, roughness, thermal stability and degradation pattern of nanomaterials. Nanomaterials often find application in adsorption, photocatalysis, catalytic ozonation, membrane process and nanoremediation of environmental pollution.

Ecological risk assessment of heavy metals at five dumpsites (1 – 5) in Umuahia, Nigeria was carr... more Ecological risk assessment of heavy metals at five dumpsites (1 – 5) in Umuahia, Nigeria was carried out. Soil samples were collected at distances of 0, 5 and 10 m from each dumpsite and from a control site. Samples of water leaf and African Spinach leaf were also collected and analysed for heavy metal ions. Soil physicochemical parameters were determined using official and recommended methods while heavy metal ion concentrations were determined using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer. Results obtained indicated that the texture of soil samples were predominantly sandy loam while pH values ranged from 6.21±0.37 to 7.70±0.29. Organic matter content ranged from 1.65±0.52 to 4.15±0.36 % while electrical conductivity had a range of 98.47±7.25 – 201.57±15.86 μS/cm across the dumpsites. Mean concentrations of heavy metal ions in soils from the dumpsites were significantly higher (P < 0.05) than those from the control site. Average metal pollution indices showed that soils in the dump...

The study was conducted in order to determine the effect of metallic manual grinding machine on m... more The study was conducted in order to determine the effect of metallic manual grinding machine on metal concentrations in food condiments. Food condiments (tomato, crayfish, dika nut, melon and pepper) were purchased from three local markets (Ndoro, Ubani and Ahiaeke) and were each divided into two parts. One part of each condiment from a specific market was pulverized with plastic mortar and pestle while the other part was pulverized using manual grinding machine. In all, three different metallic grinders (Corona ® brand) were used for the three condiment lots from the three markets. The samples (plastic mortar samples, PMS and metallic grinder samples, MGS) were digested with HNO3 and aqua regia and analyzed for metals (Fe, Zn, Cr and Ni) using Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (FAAS). The results show enrichment of condiment samples with the metals as a result of the use of the metallic grinder for crushing them since metal concentrations were higher in all metallic grinder...

The main objective of the study was to characterize and esterify ten waste frying oil (WFO) sampl... more The main objective of the study was to characterize and esterify ten waste frying oil (WFO) samples collected from fried food vendors and analyse their suitability as feedstock for biodiesel production. The parameters of the WFOs analyzed included; colour, odour, pH, specific gravity, kinematic viscosity (Oswald viscometer), moisture content (oven drying method), iodine value, saponification value, acid value and saponification value. Esterification was carried out to lower the free fatty acid (FFA) contents of the waste frying oils. Mean values for specific gravity varied from 0.892±0.022 to 0.905±0.075 g/cm 3 . The mean kinematic viscosity of the WFOs ranged from 43.120 ±1.530 to 97.530 ±6.360 mm 2 /s. The mean acid value obtained varied from 2.730 ±0.404 to 16.956 ±3.806 mg/g while the mean free fatty acid concentration in the WFO ranged from 1.95 ±0.17 to 12.09 ±2.11 mg/g. Results indicated that WFOs used for frying fish may not be good feedstocks for biodiesel production since ...

Proximate and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) compositions were analyzed in raw and smoked ... more Proximate and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) compositions were analyzed in raw and smoked samples of two exotic fish species; mackerel (Scomber scombrus) and horse mackerel (Trachurus trachurus) obtained from a local market in Umuahia, Nigeria. The fish were procured in triplicate and split into two equal parts. One part was analyzed raw while the other was smoked w i t h f i r e w o o d b e f o r e a n a l y s i s . Moisture content was higher in the raw samples compared to their corresponding smoked samples. Crude protein was higher in horse mackerel samples for both raw and smoked categories while other parameters were generally higher in mackerel. Horse mackerel had the higher value of 44.784 mg/kg for total mean PAH (mPAH) but PAH4 (sum of the four indicators of PAH contamination; benzo[a]pyrene, benz[a]anthracene, benzo[b]fluoranthene and chrysene) was similar in raw mackerel and horse mackerel. Mean BaP concentrations were higher than the EU limits (2 μg/kg) while PAH...

Physico-chemical parameters of sediments samples collected from a 1.5 ha reservoir which was amen... more Physico-chemical parameters of sediments samples collected from a 1.5 ha reservoir which was amended with organic manure over a fifteen year period were analysed and mean pH, conductivity, organic matter, nitrate and total nitrogen had values of 7.57 ±0.80, 355.7 ±115.71 μScm -1 , 8.78 ±1.83 %, 12.12 ±5.53 mg kg -1 and 49.70 ±21.81 mg kg -1 , respectively. Total phosphorus, available phosphorus and cation exchange capacity had mean values of 74.61 ±41.50 mg kg -1 , 12.46 ±5.84 mg kg -1 and 16.48 ±4.72 mmol cm -1 , respectively. Total heavy metals were determined in the samples and mean Zn concentration was significantly higher (P<0.05) than the mean concentrations of other metals. The profile of mean metal concentrations in the bed sediments was Zn>Cu>Pb>Ni>Cr>Cd. Mean Cd, Cu and Zn concentrations exceed the USEPA (1997) threshold effect levels in sediments and this is due to the long term application of manure without the dredging of the reservoir.

The leaves of Acanthus montanus are used in traditional herbal practices in South Eastern Nigeria... more The leaves of Acanthus montanus are used in traditional herbal practices in South Eastern Nigeria and in some other parts of West Africa for the treatment of gonorrhoea, syphilis, wounds and boils. Other uses of A. montanus in herbal medicine include the treatment of hypertension, cardiac dysfunctions, hepatitis and heart diseases. The chemical constituents of the ethanolic extract of the leaves of A. montanus were characterized using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS) technique and nine compounds were identified which include 2,6-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-4-methyl phenol (13.68 %), allyl(2-tetrahydrofuryl methoxy)dimethylsilane (3.86 %), sulfurous acid cyclohexylmethyl hexyl ester (5.67 %), alpha-methyl 4methylmannoside (8.41 %), hexadecanoic acid methyl ester (16.12 %), 11-octadecenoic acid methyl ester (19.03 %), docosane (5.85 %), N,N-dimethylvaleramide (18.62 %) and 2,6,10,15-tetramethyl heptadecane (8.76 %). The extract exhibited marked antibacterial activity against St...

Biodiesel is a renewable, clean-burning, and biodegradable fuel which can be synthesized from rea... more Biodiesel is a renewable, clean-burning, and biodegradable fuel which can be synthesized from readily available domestic and natural sources, such as edible, non-edible and waste cooking oils, which may serve as a substitute to petro-diesel. It is produced by catalytic transesterification of fats and oils. A number of researches has been devoted to discovering a benign catalyst, especially heterogeneous acid catalyst that could convert non-edible and waste cooking oils with high free fatty acid into biodiesel, in an attempt to reduce the cost of production. The cost of production of biodiesel is still far higher than that of conventional petro-diesel, owing to the cost of edible oil currently being used, processes involved, and cost of conventional heterogeneous catalysts employed. This study assessed the role of various catalysts; homogeneous, heterogenous and enzyme-catalyzed transesterification reactions, in terms of their advantages and disadvantages in biodiesel production in o...

Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery

In this research, a novel green tillite-based adsorbent (CMT) was synthesized by modifying the su... more In this research, a novel green tillite-based adsorbent (CMT) was synthesized by modifying the surface of natural/pristine tillite (PT) with Chrysophyllum albidum stem bark extract for the efficient removal of Cr(VI) from water. The physicochemical characteristics of PT and CMT were assessed by the use of the FTIR, XRD, BET, TGA, and SEM techniques. Cardinal adsorptive parameters such as solution pH, contact time, adsorbent dose, and initial concentration were used to optimize the efficiency of PT and CMT for Cr(VI) adsorption. The Elovich kinetic model was noticed to best describe the uptake of Cr(VI) onto PT and CMT. Hence, chemisorption was the rate-controlling step for Cr(VI) uptake onto both PT and CMT. Meanwhile, the Langmuir maximum adsorption capacity of PT and CMT was 51.06 and 291.8 mg g−1 respectively, which was higher than those obtained for most materials used for Cr(VI) uptake. The Langmuir and Freundlich models best describe the equilibrium adsorption data for PT and CMT respectively. The reusability assessment of PT and CMT showed over 90% of the initial Cr(VI) uptake even after the fifth cycle of reuse. Electrostatic interaction and reduction of Cr(VI) were responsible for the removal of Cr(VI) from water onto the green material. The uptake of Cr(VI) was thermodynamically feasible, entropy-driven, and endothermic on both PT and CMT. The outcome of this study revealed that the anchoring of Chrysophyllum albidum stem bark extract on tillite produced a green adsorbent, which was highly efficient for the removal of Cr(VI) from polluted water.

Applied Water Science

The toxic effects of anionic dyes such as tartrazine and sunset yellow on humans and the aquatic ... more The toxic effects of anionic dyes such as tartrazine and sunset yellow on humans and the aquatic environment are of serious concern. The need for the removal of these dyes from wastewaters led to the use of adsorption techniques as a cheap and efficient treatment method. Thus, this research was based on the preparation of a low-cost activated carbon derived from cassava sievate designated as CS, which was utilized in the adsorption of sunset yellow and tartrazine from simulated wastewater. The sorption process was carried out under varying process factors in a batch mode. Adsorbent characterization displayed the presence of surface functional groups by the FT-IR and a porous structure as revealed by scanning electron microscopy. Optimum dye uptake was recorded at pH (1.0–2.0), temperature (30–40 °C), CS dosage (0.1 g), and dye concentration (150 mg/L). A maximum CS monolayer uptake of 20.83 and 0.091 mg/g was recorded for tartrazine and sunset yellow dyes, respectively. The pseudo-s...

Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management

The effects of smoking on proximate composition, energy values and concentrations of polycyclic a... more The effects of smoking on proximate composition, energy values and concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were studied in raw and smoked samples of catfish (Clarias gariepinus) and tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Crude protein was higher in the tilapia sample for both raw and smoked samples. There was significant difference (P<0.05) in the lipid contents of raw and smoked samples of both species. Mean naphthalene concentration was significantly higher (P<0.05) than those of other PAHs analyzed in raw and smoked samples of both species. Mean benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) concentrations and total mean PAH concentrations (mPAH) exceeded the EU limits in raw muscle samples. All the PAHs analyzed were detected in the smoked samples. Mean BaP concentrations and total mean PAH exceeded the EU maximum limits (2.0 and 10 µg/kg) in the muscle of smoked fish and fishery products. Total mean concentration of the four indicators of PAH contamination gave the values of 0.018 and 0.050; 0.014 and 0.012 mg/kg for raw and smoked samples of catfish and tilapia respectively. It could be inferred that the smoking process generally increased the mean total PAH levels in the fish samples and there is urgent need for relevant authorities to take appropriate action due to the public health implications of PAH contamination.

Publishing Research Quarterly

This review X-rays the issue of illegitimate (predatory) academic publishing of books, monographs... more This review X-rays the issue of illegitimate (predatory) academic publishing of books, monographs, journals and conference proceedings which is a topical issue globally as a result of the damage it does to academic quality and the society. It looks at the dilemma faced by researchers in developing countries in terms of publishing research results. It tries to give clear descriptions of the qualities of legitimate and illegitimate academic publishers and academic conference organizers. It suggests several solutions and protocols for addressing illegitimate publishing at the levels of individual researchers; institutions and learned societies; government and society; and international and regional groups with due attention paid to country-specific conditions and academic inequalities between the developed and developing world. Since the issue affects both researchers in developed and developing countries, a sustainable global action at the highest levels of government is advocated in the drive to reduce illegitimate academic publishing to the barest minimum globally.