Melanie James | The University of Newcastle (original) (raw)

Articles, papers & chapters by Melanie James

The primary aim of this research was to explore the public relations positioning used in the deba... more The primary aim of this research was to explore the public relations positioning used in the debate over electricity privatisation in the 2015 NSW state election. Guided by positioning analysing as proposed by Harré and Slocum (2003) and James (2014), this research sought to not only identify acts of positioning, but also to evaluate their effectiveness. In this study, a sample of speeches and interviews by NSW Premier Mike Baird and Opposition Leader Luke Foley were analysed. Both political leaders sought to engage in positioning around the topic of electricity privatisation for a strategic purpose. The chosen texts were analysed using both critical discourse analysis and the Framework for Intentional Positioning in Public Relations (James, 2014). The research findings revealed that Luke Foley's goal was to position electricity privatisation as both bad for NSW and the single biggest issue in the election. Conversely, Mike Baird sought to position the issue as good for NSW but did not give it prominence through the campaign. The research found that whilst there was strategic merit in both of these positioning strategies, Mike Baird was more successful in occupying his desired positions. Findings and analysis also highlighted the integral role of the local moral order in public relations positioning. It was suggested in this study that even if congruence between a position, speech act and storyline is achieved, the position will be unviable if the individual didn't have the right to position in the first place.

This exploratory research examines the movie consumption habits of young adults aged 18 to 24 yea... more This exploratory research examines the movie consumption habits of young adults aged 18 to 24 years across the legal (paid) and illegal (unpaid) spectrum. It seeks to understand what motivates people to consume through certain distribution plat-forms and if any related factors between paid and unpaid platforms can be found through the application of the uses and gratifications theoretical framework. This research was essentially a pilot study to ascertain whether findings showed factors that could help inform the film industry generally. More specifically, the study hoped to identify factors that could be incorporated into a public relations/market-ing communications campaign that could persuade illegal downloaders to more frequently use legal film distribution platforms.This pilot focused on those living in one area of regional Australia that encompassed a major regional city.

The role of speech acts in public relations practice, and how they are used by entities to intent... more The role of speech acts in public relations practice, and how they are used by entities to intentionally position themselves and others, are examined through the application of positioning theory. Studies have found that successful positioning is achieved when there is congruence between the position taken or assigned,
the speech acts used to enact it, and the storylines used as support. This triad is central to positioning theory, which is a social constructionist approach that defines a position as a cluster of rights and duties that limits the repertoire of possible social acts available to a person or person-like entity (such as an
organisation). Examining public relations using positioning theory articulates practices relating to the power to position self and others, and can inform decision-making in communication program design. It moves away from organisation/ management-centric theory that has dominated the field, and situates public relations firmly in the communication discipline.

This paper explores feminism and public relations through the diverse perspectives of three publi... more This paper explores feminism and public relations through the diverse perspectives of three public relations scholars seeking to understand what a critical-feminist research agenda might offer. It acknowledges that feminist public relations scholarship – at least until recently – is underdeveloped. Drawing on bell hooks’ (1989) notion of talking back, this paper offers a conversation to explore tensions and debates around a feminist agenda for public relations. The discussion is structured around three broad themes: provocations, transgressions and resistance, and points to how feminist intelligences and modalities, in challenging gendered hegemonies, may open public relations scholarship and practices to new understandings.

This is the introductory chapter to this book. In public relations, people talk about positioning... more This is the introductory chapter to this book. In public relations, people talk about positioning an idea, a persona, a political ideal, an ideology – but what are they talking about? Why do some positions taken by organizations crystallize in the minds of audiences, while others fail?

Whilst positioning is not something new in public relations, this book is the first to explicate what it involves, how it works and how to do it. This is the first in-depth exploration of the possibilities of Positioning Theory for the public relations field and it adds a new perspective to the growing body of multidisciplinary work in this rich theoretical area, moving the discussion away from the traditional communication plans of previous decades, which fail to accommodate the changing media and opinion landscapes. The author pulls together various strands of socio-cultural theory into an analytical framework, providing readers with a tool to analyse the organizational implications of public relations decisions, guiding strategic decision making through realistic scenario planning.

This thought-provoking book provides an alternative path to studying communication in increasingly complex environments and as such, will be vital reading for researchers and educators, advanced communication and public relations students, and for senior public relations practitioners.

Reviews:
'Positioning is something that public relations people talk about, yet no one has adequately described or theorized – until now. Melanie James makes an important contribution to both theory and practice by describing, analyzing and applying positioning theory, thereby explaining how public relations contributes to the social construction of reality.'

Karen Miller Russell, Associate Professor, University of Georgia, USA.

'This book offers nothing less than an innovative way of thinking about Public Relations. By drawing upon Positioning Theory it brings to the field the idea of rights and duties and offers the Public Relation practitioners a framework to design PR strategies. At the same time, the book offers to social scientists from different disciplines new insights in how to analyze data from a Positioning Theory angle. Melanie James’ book is a wonderful illustration of the saying that there is nothing as practical as a good theory.'

Luk van Langenhove, Professor and Director of the United Nations University Institute on Comparative Regional Integration Studies (UNU-CRIS), Representative of the Rector at UNESCO in Paris, and co-author with Prof Rom Harré of the book, "Positioning Theory - Moral Contexts of Intentional Action" (1999).

Social Media Communication: Concepts, Practices, Data, Law and Ethics, 2015

Melanie James was invited to contribute her thoughts on the challenges in public relations posed ... more Melanie James was invited to contribute her thoughts on the challenges in public relations posed posed by social media in coming years. Her piece appears in Chapter 1 of the book Social Media Communication: Concepts, Practices, Data, Law and Ethics by Professor Jeremy Lipshultz.

This autoethnography is an exercise in reporting, recording and reflecting on the process of atte... more This autoethnography is an exercise in reporting, recording and reflecting on the process of attempting to apply a public relations theoretical construct to a practice environment. I take a social constructionist approach where the practice of autoethnography presumes that reality is socially constructed and where I, as the autoethnographer, can contribute to the social construction of what is known as public relations practice. I applied an analytical autoethnographic approach and used my own experiences, reflections and memories to construct myself in my writing as an academic and practitioner working within the context of a pro-bono public relations consultancy project. The aim of this research was to ascertain whether the Framework for Intentional Positioning in Public Relations could assist practitioners to develop positioning strategies for future programs and campaigns. I applied the positioning framework to the design of a positioning strategy for an small university-affiliated environmental organisation. My work indicated that the framework could aid in designing a positioning strategy, however, applying the framework to organisational circumstances could be challenging. The framework was found to have two distinct sections to it when applied to practice and this was not evident in previous analytical work. The project also indicated that further research is needed on how to adapt the framework to the concept of emergent strategy. My hope is that this autoethnography shows that even seasoned practitioners/academics can be challenged in practice situations.

Journal of Public Relations Research

Positioning within public relations is a concept not often addressed in public relations literatu... more Positioning within public relations is a concept not often addressed in public relations literature. This paper reports on the progress of a project that aims to develop a way in which positioning could be usefully conceptualized within public relations. It suggests a conceptual framework that takes positioning beyond the marketing definitions that have limited use in the broader public relations field. The article reports on the development of a provisional conceptual framework for intentional positioning within a public relations context. Drawing from recent developments in Positioning Theory in the field of psychology, a framework was developed and applied to 57 award winning public relations campaign entries. Findings reveal that the positioning framework has the potential to be applied both as an heuristic to aid analysis of practice and also as a framework to aid practitioners in designing positioning strategies. Possibilities for further research are discussed. - The next draft of this paper was accepted for publication in December 2009 and appeared in published form in 2011: Journal of PR RESEARCH

"The role of key messages has assumed an almost common-sense status within public relations campa... more "The role of key messages has assumed an almost common-sense status within public relations campaigns. This research examines award-winning campaigns to explore what assumptions and understandings underpin the use of key messages by public relations practitioners. It was envisaged this would help explicate an aspect of practice that is seemingly widespread and ingrained.

The findings report in four thematic areas that emerged from the data: environment, development, attributes and context. The concept of a congested and contested messaging environment was found to be the key driver behind the use of key messages. Practitioners saw well-crafted key messages as having the power to cut through the environment to achieve specific outcomes and positively position organisations.

The study concludes that although a transmission model/media effects theoretical perspective was evident, practice could also be conceptualised as a social constructionist endeavour in that practitioners worked to create versions of social reality to achieve organisational goals. Further, it was also found that practitioners might benefit from a deeper understanding of how people receive, engage with, and process information in terms of campaign message design and evaluation."

This paper suggests that public relations can be understood as the strategic attempt to get the s... more This paper suggests that public relations can be understood as the strategic attempt to get the subjects of public relations activities to construct the intended meaning of the employing or commissioning entity rather than any other meaning. The author puts forward that the intentional construction of meaning for strategic purposes may be at the heart of public relations as everything undertaken by practitioners could be framed within a concept of strategic intent. One way of conceptualising this assertion is to consider two key concepts within the field of public relations – strategy and the construction of meaning. This paper suggests that the development of theory to accommodate such a position should be considered and proposes that a broadly social constructionist approach may offer the best prospect of undertaking this. If this view was widely adopted then the debate as to who holds the power and wherewithal to influence and control the meaning construction process, and the ethics of doing so, could take place.

This exploratory study examined how public relations practitioners based outside capital cities a... more This exploratory study examined how public relations practitioners
based outside capital cities are using social media. Forty-eight
practitioners based in one of Australia’s largest non-capital city
regions were surveyed in 2010. It was found that these practitioners
are trialling how social media can be used to achieve public relations
objectives. Practitioners are more likely to be using social media in
their personal lives and for their own professional development, than
for their organisation or clients. However, this research indicates
practitioners who use social media outside of work will progress to using
social media for public relations purposes. Further, these practitioners
and their organisations are resource-challenged and risk-averse when
it comes to using social media to engage with their publics. Further
research is needed to ascertain the implications of these findings for
public relations practice and education.

This paper reports a discourse analysis of the brochure titled ‘Questions and answers (Q&A) about... more This paper reports a discourse analysis of the brochure titled ‘Questions and answers (Q&A) about HPV Vaccination Program: A prevention strategy for cervical cancer’. This brochure, part of a public relations /public information program is given to parents prior to HPV vaccination and, as such, is a primary source of information about HPV for this important audience. The research set out to answer the question: What are the discourses contained in the information given to parents about the NSW HPV school vaccination program? A critical discourse analysis of the Q&A brochure found a strong contribution to a discourse of the risk of cancer and the discourse that HPV is sexually transmitted. The findings contribute to understanding of the role of public relations practitioners as ‘discourse technologists’ involved in the construction and maintenance of discourses and the ways in which this is achieved.

Much of the focus of academic literature on blogging in public relations has focused on blogs as ... more Much of the focus of academic literature on blogging in public relations has focused on blogs as relationship-building tools and, as such, tools to apply a more co-creational approach to public relations practice. However there is some indication that the extent to which blogs are being used as this type of tool may have been exaggerated. This research provides a snapshot of the blogging practices of public relations agencies in Sydney, Australia. The project’s focus was to determine whether any inconsistencies existed between academic and practitioner perspectives about blogging practice. It also sought to identify aspects of practice that would indicate a move towards more co-creational rather than functional approaches to public relations. Evidence of both approaches were found, with the primary purpose of the blogs appearing to be seeking new business by promoting the agencies’ services and their practitioners as thought leaders in the field of public relations.

"Positioning, as a concept in academic literature, is most frequently associated with marketing s... more "Positioning, as a concept in academic literature, is most frequently associated with marketing studies. Positioning in a public relations sense is underexplored with only a relatively small amount of works relating to positioning in any sense published in the public relations literature. However in recent studies positioning has been shown to be a not insignificant aspect of public relations practitioners’ roles. It has been identified that marketing definitions of positioning are insufficient to define positioning in the context of public relations practice and has put forward a provisional conceptual framework for intentional positioning in public relations. This paper reports on further testing and development of the framework and applies it to government agency/publicly-funded organizations’ campaigns as a way of examining whether positioning in public relations was different to that seen in commercial marketing, as marketing as a rule is not generally associated with government communication. This project set out to investigate whether government agencies’ and other public sector organizations’ communication campaigns in Australia employed public relations positioning techniques, as
defined by James (in press), in their quest to achieve communication goals. Through the application of the positioning framework, evidence is presented that shows that the communication campaigns of the government agencies and public sector organizations intended to position their idea/s, their offering or their service in a particular way in the minds of target publics and that they employed a range of techniques to enact the intended positioning. The framework will need further testing and refinement but this study’s findings show that positioning is a significant part of government agency and public sector communication practice."

Communication, Creativity and Global Citizenship: Refereed Proceedings of the Australian and New Zealand Communications Association Annual Conference, Brisbane, July 8-10, 2009, Jul 8, 2009

This paper reports on the first step in addressing the research question: is the primary purpose ... more This paper reports on the first step in addressing the research question: is the primary purpose of public relations to have target publics construct an intended meaning in order to attain strategic goals. This research question stems from the tensions around the purpose of public relations in terms of my knowledge acquired as a senior practitioner and that which is presented in much of the academic literature of the public relations field. This research reports on an initial examination of public relations practice as presented in award winning campaign entry texts to determine whether the
construction of intended meanings were central to the campaign’s purpose. The research also examined whether the campaigns intended outcomes were primarily aiming to achieve the commissioning entity’s goals or some other goal. This was a way of examining whether my own experiences had been atypical and would inform my further research direction. This project, although exploratory in nature only, found that my own experiences of practice where public relations activity
was undertaken with the express intention of achieving the strategic goals of the entity for whom I was working was not atypical. Further, all campaigns can be interpreted as having worked to have target publics construct the intended meaning of the commissioning entity rather than any other meaning.

In 2007, a new assessment task, a reading journal blog, was introduced to undergraduate public re... more In 2007, a new assessment task, a reading journal blog, was introduced
to undergraduate public relations courses at the University of Newcastle
on Australia’s East coast. It was designed to address two challenges:
firstly to encourage student engagement with the required course
readings to facilitate student learning; and secondly to equip students with the technical skills of blogging. There is evidence suggesting that this type of assessment task increases student engagement with required course
reading, that the assessment task could have wider application than in public
relations courses, and that it facilitates the development of students’ technical
skills in using new media. In this paper the context and design of the
assessment task and the results of a student survey are presented. In
addition to discussing the research findings, ways to further develop the
assessment task are explored.

This review paper brings together key findings from across the recent literature to enhance over... more This review paper brings together key findings from across the recent
literature to enhance overall understanding of current and future challenges posed by new media to public relations. It remains unclear whether current theoretical frameworks can fully accommodate newmedia and evidence suggests that many public relations practitionersare struggling with the impact of new media, and especially the Internet,on their practice. Public relations educators may need to review course curricula in light of new media developments and industry responses. Possible threats and opportunities presented by new media for public relations are explored and directions for further research in this areaare suggested.

Karen Miller Russell, Associate Professor, University of Georgia, USA.

Social Media Communication: Concepts, Practices, Data, Law and Ethics, 2015

Journal of Public Relations Research

Communication, Creativity and Global Citizenship: Refereed Proceedings of the Australian and New Zealand Communications Association Annual Conference, Brisbane, July 8-10, 2009, Jul 8, 2009

In strategic communication and public relations, people talk about positioning an idea, a persona... more In strategic communication and public relations, people talk about positioning an idea, a persona, a political ideal, an ideology – but what are they talking about? Why do some positions taken by organizations crystallize in the minds of audiences, while others fail?

Published 2007 A comprehensive guide to government careers at all levels in Australia

Published 2006 - Australia's first comprehensive guide to public relations careers.

The project aimed to determine the underlying purpose of Australian award-winning public relation... more The project aimed to determine the underlying purpose of Australian award-winning public relations campaigns and the means by which the purpose was achieved. It sought to explore the phenomenon of why a major part of public relations work, that of campaigns, is not well accounted for in the dominant normative theory of public relations –the two-way symmetrical model of public relations (Grunig & Hunt, 1984, p. 22). This model does not accommodate much of the campaigns’ practice as reported in the literature and elsewhere and this has implications for teaching, researching and practising public relations. A qualitative thematic analysis of Australian public relations campaign practice, as reported in 57 national award-winning campaign entries and in 18 interviews with award-winning practitioners, was undertaken. The common purpose of the campaigns was identified as being to construct versions of social reality through having target audiences and publics construct particular meanings that would facilitate the achievement of stated organisational goals. Positioning and the use of key messages
in campaigns emerged as key techniques in constructing these meanings. Drawing on the field of personal positioning in social psychology, a conceptual framework for intentional positioning in public relations was developed to begin to account for this
practice technique which has previously been underexplored in the public relations literature. The framework requires further testing but indications from this project are that it will assist in the design of intentional positioning strategies and also provide a breakdown of the components of intentional positioning. This could facilitate
researching and teaching this aspect of practice but may also provide a means by which this part of practice can be worked through with clients and appropriately billed. The framework also provides a rationale for why the use of key messaging techniques in
public relations is central to many campaigns. This thesis suggests a more appropriate definition of campaign practice whilst questioning whether campaign responses to public relations situations and problems are always appropriate. It explicates intentional
positioning techniques in campaign practice that have previously received little attention in the literature, and further supports the adoption of a social constructionist theoretical approach to teaching and research in public relations campaigns.

PRism, 2013

While the introduction of Web 2.0 technology and social media is changing public relations practi... more While the introduction of Web 2.0 technology and social media is changing public relations practice, it is premature to presume that online public relations is now the norm across the industry. This paper reports on an exploratory, qualitative study that was undertaken to further understanding about practitioners’ use and perceptions of social media. Five in-depth interviews were conducted with practitioners working for different types of organisations––agency, government, corporate, nonprofit, and a sole practitioner––to give insight into the different perceptions, experiences and challenges associated with social media. This research builds on an earlier quantitative study (Robson & James, 2011) that found practitioners were trialling social media for public relations purposes and felt their organisation and the resources available to them prevented a more in-depth, ongoing engagement with social media. The findings from this qualitative research provide further detail about the practitioners’ ‘trial’ behaviour, specifically addressing how practitioners could foresee using social media to achieve public relations objectives, the role strategic planning and communication models play in their social media use, and the barriers practitioners perceive as preventing them from enacting social media in their organisation.
Although the insights examined in this paper cannot be generalised to other practitioners, this exploratory research extends our knowledge of social media use in public relations and reinforces a number of questions raised by other researchers in the
field, suggesting themes of strategy, two-way communication, and the role of the dominant coalition need to be considered as part of a larger scale study.

In 2007, a new assessment task, a reading journal blog, was introduced to undergraduate public re... more In 2007, a new assessment task, a reading journal blog, was introduced to undergraduate public relations courses. It was designed to address two challenges, firstly to encourage student engagement with the required set course readings to facilitate student learning and secondly to equip students with the technical skills of blogging. Reading to learn has long been a feature of higher education (Guthrie, 1982, cited in Maclellan, 1997). The first challenge was to increase students' compliance with required readings as this plays "an important role in classroom dynamics as well as individual achievement" (Burchfield & Sappington, 2000, p.59). The second challenge arose from recent academic literature in the communication discipline indicating that public relations graduates will need to be able to set up, maintain and contribute to blogs and make decisions about whether such tactics should be adopted in campaigns (Alexander, 2004; McAllister and Taylor, 2007). In this p...

The role of speech acts in public relations practice, and how they are used by entities to intent... more The role of speech acts in public relations practice, and how they are used by entities to intentionally position themselves and others, are examined through the application of positioning theory. Studies have found that successful positioning is achieved when there is congruence between the position taken or assigned, the speech acts used to enact it, and the storylines used as support. This triad is central to positioning theory, which is a social constructionist approach that defines a position as a cluster of rights and duties that limits the repertoire of possible social acts available to a person or person-like entity (such as an organisation). Examining public relations using positioning theory articulates practices relating to the power to position self and others, and can inform decisionmaking in communication program design. It moves away from organisation/management-centric theory that has dominated the field, and situates public relations firmly in the communication discipline.

Positioning Theory Symposium 6-8th July 2015 Bruges, Belgium This Positioning Theory symposium i... more Positioning Theory Symposium 6-8th July 2015 Bruges, Belgium

This Positioning Theory symposium is being offered to enable discussions and reflections on the contribution of Positioning Theory as developed by Rom Harré and others. The symposium will be held at the premises of the United Nations University – Centre for Regional Integration Studies (UNU-CRIS), in beautiful Bruges, Belgium.

The key purpose of the research symposium is to develop a high quality, interactive event that contributes to the development and growth of Positioning Theory research communities globally. The theme is:

“Positioning Theory: state of play across disciplines. What have we learnt?”

The symposium is open to contributions from all social sciences disciplines and research areas, including for instance teaching methods, communication studies, International Relations or conflict analysis as well as to contributions from social theory or philosophy of science.

This symposium is designed to:

present a sample of some of the leading Positioning theoretical research in the world; and,
to facilitate a series of creative and critical dialogues about research, research development, and research challenges related to Positioning Theory. The expectation is that these dialogues will be original, participatory, creative and collegial.
The Positioning Theory symposium is intended for active researchers and those with interests in connecting with research related to Positioning Theory. The inaugural Positioning Theory Research Symposium has been designed to attract early-career to senior academics, higher degree students, community researchers, and practitioners who are interested in research, from across the world.

The symposium language will be English.

You can participate by either submitting a paper as an individual participant or by submitting an expression of interest for a dialogue session.