Tapan Kumar Nath | The University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus (original) (raw)

Papers by Tapan Kumar Nath

Journal of Forestry Research, 2014

ABSTRACT An exploratory survey was conducted among the Khasia living in Lawachara National Parkt ... more ABSTRACT An exploratory survey was conducted among the Khasia living in Lawachara National Parkt (LNP) to investigate their dependency on the protected area (PA) for livelihoods, betel leaf hill farming, traditional forest conservation and perceptions of the PA. Field data were collected by interviewing 48 household heads from two villages (punjis) located inside the LNP and visiting their farms. The economy of the Khasia was forest-based. They were largely dependent on betel leaf hill farming in LNP and nearly 71% of their mean annual income was derived from this irrespective of farmer category. On average, about 14% of the incomes of the poorer farmers came from forest produce followed by 10% and 6% for medium and rich farmers respectively. Hills and forests were the foundations of their lives and livelihoods, and LNP was the life-blood of Khasia survival. As a sustainable production system, this farming practice plays a vital role in conserving biodiversity in LNP and might be replicated elsewhere.

Small-scale Forestry, 2015

Small-scale Forestry, 2015

Indian Forester, 2000

Abstract The paper describes the present tree stocks and species diversity in 4 different compart... more Abstract The paper describes the present tree stocks and species diversity in 4 different compartments of Sitapahar Forest Reserve (Bangladesh), a wet evergreen forest site. The number of individual tree stems per hectare was highest in Compartment No. 28, whereas ...

Http Dx Doi Org 10 1080 08941920802653521, Aug 12, 2010

Agroforestry Systems, 2015

South Asian upland cultivators are transitioning from subsistence production to commercial produc... more South Asian upland cultivators are transitioning from subsistence production to commercial production using mainly small-scale rubber cultivation, which helps this transition and reduces poverty. This study, conducted October 2007 through February 2009, examines how small-scale rubber planting enhances people's livelihoods. Data were gathered from Bangladesh, India, and Sri Lanka. We found differences in rubber tree stock, growth, management, and livelihood impact. Plantations in India and Sri Lanka were doing well, while Bangladesh tree stock was low. Strong institutional support, proper silvicultural practices, funding for plantation maintenance, and participant awareness of benefits contributed to satisfactory plantation conditions in India and Sri Lanka, where participants realized good earnings from tapping, while Bangladeshi participants earned little. Because monoculture rubber plantations present risks, participants should practice mixed cropping. Rubber agroforestry can be the best alternative to monoculture rubber plantations because it reconciles economic and sustainable uses of natural resources, and biodiversity conservation.

Hill farming practices and their financial impact were investigated by a rapid rural appraisal me... more Hill farming practices and their financial impact were investigated by a rapid rural appraisal method in a hilly village of Chittagong district. The study revealed that flat valleys were utilized for paddy cultivation and major portion of hilly areas were used for naturally grown sungrass production. About 41% of the total net benefit came from paddy cultivation followed by sungras(about 19%) and brinjal (about 17%). It was also found that every farm rear livestock which contribute an extra benefit to the total net benefit of the individual farm. On an average each individual farm (average farm size 2.42 ha) earned Tk. 48705.46 per year as net benefit from hill farming where livestock production contributes about 21% and the rest by the agricrops and others ( i.e. sungrass and banana).

Agroforestry Systems, 2015

Unsustainable land use systems in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) have damaged the environment a... more Unsustainable land use systems in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) have damaged the environment and enhanced vulnerability of indigenous people. Promoting improved land use in degraded and abandoned shifting cultivation areas has been widely suggested for better livelihoods and environmental conservation. This article analysed four major land uses, agroforestry, fruit orchards, shifting cultivation and village common forest (VCF), in the CHT by correlating them with local perceptions. Traditionally, the indigenous people of the CHT are dependent on shifting cultivation and VCF for their livelihood. Agroforestry and orchards are newly introduced land uses in the CHT area. This analysis is performed by using the Strength, Weakness, Opportunity and Threat (SWOT) approach in combination with the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP). The introduction of agroforestry and fruit orchards influenced marginalised indigenous people to reduce the shifting cultivation area. However, potential weaknesses and threats were associated with shifting cultivation, agroforestry and fruit orchards. Except for shifting cultivation, the positive factors of other land uses outweighed the negative ones. The AHP results indicate that while adopting a land use, the respondents prioritised economic benefits (75 % preference) over social (17 %) and environmental aspects (8 %). Considering these three factors, people ranked four land uses in the order of orchards [ agroforestry [ VCF [ shifting cultivation. This suggests that future land use planning in the CHT cannot secure sustainability by mere tradeoffs among the three sustainability factors (social, economic, environmental). Instead, if the activities for achieving social and environmental benefits of a project can be employed to create benefits in terms of income or savings (money/effort/time), they will be well accepted by the marginalised rural communities.

Small-scale Forestry, 2014

Homestead forests in the Teknaf Peninsula ecologically critical area of Cox's Bazar in Bangladesh... more Homestead forests in the Teknaf Peninsula ecologically critical area of Cox's Bazar in Bangladesh have not been widely studied. This paper explores floristic diversity of homestead forests together with their contribution to the household economy and climate change mitigation. Data were collected from a survey of 140 households and a vegetation survey of 70 homesteads in three sites. Villagers allocated 70 % of their homestead area for homestead forestry and altogether 73 plant species were recorded from the study sites. The average density was 4,000 plants/ha. The above-ground biomass was estimated 235.45 Mg/ha, equivalent to 117.73 Mg C/ha. Villagers maintain sustainability of homestead forests by planting seedlings every year and thus ensure several diameter and height classes. Homestead forests contribute substantially to household income, provide fuelwood and timber for own consumption and sale, and protect villagers during cyclones. Homestead forests thus meet the conditions to be a clean development mechanism forestry project which would provide a win-win strategy for involving small-scale farmers in climate change mitigation and adaptation initiatives, and biodiversity conservation.

International Forestry Review, 2009

This study used two contrasting sample villages (one relatively successful and the other relative... more This study used two contrasting sample villages (one relatively successful and the other relatively unsuccessful) as case study sites to investigate the impacts of a forest-based settlement project on community livelihood. It was found that although since customary forestry practices (shifting cultivation) could not support participants' livelihoods all year, joining the settlement project had improved their livelihoods. Many project participants have given up customary forestry practices completely and diversified their livelihood strategies. Due to budget allocation disparities, differences in raising awareness about project benefits, and inconsistencies in monitoring and motivation, project outcomes varied between the villages. Several factors were identified that underlay success or failure of the settlement project in achieving targeted project's objectives. A recommendation is made for effective participation by participants that would heighten the sense of ownership, enhance collective management, and ensure long-term project sustainability.

Society & Natural Resources, 2013

South Asian upland cultivators are transitioning from subsistence production to commercial produc... more South Asian upland cultivators are transitioning from subsistence production to commercial production using mainly small-scale rubber cultivation, which helps this transition and reduces poverty. This study, conducted October 2007 through February 2009, examines how small-scale rubber planting enhances people's livelihoods. Data were gathered from Bangladesh, India, and Sri Lanka. We found differences in rubber tree stock, growth, management, and livelihood impact. Plantations in India and Sri Lanka were doing well, while Bangladesh tree stock was low. Strong institutional support, proper silvicultural practices, funding for plantation maintenance, and participant awareness of benefits contributed to satisfactory plantation conditions in India and Sri Lanka, where participants realized good earnings from tapping, while Bangladeshi participants earned little. Because monoculture rubber plantations present risks, participants should practice mixed cropping. Rubber agroforestry can be the best alternative to monoculture rubber plantations because it reconciles economic and sustainable uses of natural resources, and biodiversity conservation.

Society & Natural Resources, 2010

Small-scale Forestry, 2008

Because of illegal logging, increased population pressure and intensified shifting cultivation, f... more Because of illegal logging, increased population pressure and intensified shifting cultivation, forest coverage of the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) has decreased drastically resulting in land degradation. Many development projects have been implemented to combat forest loss and land degradation and also to improve the livelihoods of the hill people. This paper reports an empirical study of the Upland Settlement Project (USP) of Bangladesh which was undertaken to prevent land degradation and enhance the standard of living of the people. Planters were found to have given up shifting cultivation and adopted soil conserving agroforestry practices, and forest coverage has been increased in the project village. Interacting with project staff members, government officials and NGOs assisted planters in diversifying livelihood strategies thereby reducing dependency on project resources. Rich planters, utilizing their own capacity, expanded their income sources successfully. Poor planters still remain wage labourers because they do not have sufficient finance and networks to invest in productive ventures. Planters' participation in project activities and the information flow between them and project staff were found to be minimal. Suggestions are made for the continuity of project functions, which involve greater participation of planters in rubber management functions, improved information flow, resolution of land tenure and greater equality in distribution of rubber revenue.

Small-scale Forestry, 2009

The Khasia ethnic community of Bangladesh has been a population of forest villagers in the north-... more The Khasia ethnic community of Bangladesh has been a population of forest villagers in the north-eastern hill forests of Bangladesh since the early 1950s, practicing a betel leaf-based agroforestry system on land granted by the Forest Department. Taking a sample forest village of the Sylhet forest division as a case study, this article examines the sustainability attributes of betel leaf production in the agroforestry system. The presence of several positive attributes of sustainability including the composition of agroforestry, disease control, soil fertility management, profitability, socio-cultural acceptability and institutional support indicate that betel leaf production within the agroforestry system is stable under the prevailing traditional management system. Income from the sale of betel leaf is the principal livelihood means and villager's reciprocal contributions help to conserve forest resources. However, problems with land ownership and regular agreement renewal need to be resolved for the sake of their livelihoods and forest conservation.

Small-scale Forestry, 2013

Even though many forest villagers have been living on forest department land and serving the depa... more Even though many forest villagers have been living on forest department land and serving the department in the northeastern hill forests region of Bangladesh since the early 1950s, their livelihood has not yet been fully explored. This paper examines the livelihoods of forest villagers (Khasia ethnic people) and their contribution to forest conservation, using data from the Sylhet forest division. The forest villagers are well-endowed with all the elements of a sustainable livelihoods framework, though human capital in terms of education is not satisfactory. Strong social capital, stable natural capital and a productive market-oriented agroforestry system facilitate the generation of financial and physical capital that make the livelihoods of Khasia people sustainable. At the same time, their reciprocal contributions in terms of forest protection and plantation development support forest conservation. However, some institutional issues such as insecure land tenure with regular agreement renewal problems need to be resolved for the sake of their livelihoods and forest conservation. Lessons learned from the study can be utilized in formulating future participatory forest management schemes in the country.

Journal of Forest Research, 2005

The potentialities of agroforestry are generally investigated through their biophysiological phen... more The potentialities of agroforestry are generally investigated through their biophysiological phenomena, cost-benefit analysis, and possible impact upon poverty reduction. There have been inadequate studies on the actual impacts of agroforestry intervention on small landholders and of farmers' attitudes toward these agroforestry programs. Drawing upon the findings of an empirical study, this article explores the effects of small-scale agroforestry on upland community development in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh. More specifically, the study clarifies the merits and demerits of different agroforestry systems as perceived by farmers, their impacts on the rural economy and the environment, farmers' attitudes toward the adoption of agroforestry, and impacts of various government policies. Field data were collected by administering questions to 90 randomly selected smallholders of the Upland Settlement Project (USP), as well as from project staff. The research tools employed were semistructured interviews, group discussions, and uncontrolled observations. The results indicated that the agroforestry interventions have in fact increased farmers' income through employment and the selling of farm products, as well as by improving the ecological conditions of these areas through reduction of soil erosion, increasing tree coverage, and maintaining soil fertility. The adoption of different agroforestry systems was governed mainly by the farmers' interests in following these techniques, their ability to cultivate the land in the pre-scribed manner, and the market demand for their products. The major obstacles that prevented increased agroforestry improvements included lack of confidence in new land-use systems, inappropriate project design (e.g., top-down innovation approach), and policy issues regarding land tenure.

International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology, 2008

By sampling an upland settlement project (USP) village, this study examined why the project faile... more By sampling an upland settlement project (USP) village, this study examined why the project failed to achieve the planned objectives in some villages, and what livelihood strategies villagers (planters) have adopted to sustain their livelihoods. The paper uses data obtained by qualitative and quantitative methods. The USP was formulated with the objectives of settling 50 landless and marginal tribal families in a project village and introducing agroforestry and rubber plantations for short-and long-term socioeconomic development of planters, in a participatory manner. There are now only 15 planters in the project village and, although agroforestry has progressed well, only 30 to 40% of poor quality rubber trees remain. Planter participation in project activities was limited to wage labour, indicating that the USP failed to adequately achieve all its proposed objectives. In the face of project failure, planters have adopted diversified strategies to maintain their livelihoods. Several shortcomings caused failure of the project, such as the inability of project staff members to organize planters, failure to create awareness among planters about project benefits, lack of regular project money disbursement, sociocultural ignorance, and lack of social capital among planters. Recommendations are made for securing effective participation of local people to assure successful and sustainable project outcomes. Lessons learned will be helpful in formulating future development programmes in this country and elsewhere.

International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, 2005

sity or improve tribal people's livelihoods or the region's forest resources. Reorientation of go... more sity or improve tribal people's livelihoods or the region's forest resources. Reorientation of government policies, easy access to institutional support and the active participation of local people in development intervention are of the utmost importance in order to find alternative land uses for sustainable hill farming, to improve the farmer's living standards and to conserve forests and protect watersheds.

Journal of Forestry Research, 2014

ABSTRACT An exploratory survey was conducted among the Khasia living in Lawachara National Parkt ... more ABSTRACT An exploratory survey was conducted among the Khasia living in Lawachara National Parkt (LNP) to investigate their dependency on the protected area (PA) for livelihoods, betel leaf hill farming, traditional forest conservation and perceptions of the PA. Field data were collected by interviewing 48 household heads from two villages (punjis) located inside the LNP and visiting their farms. The economy of the Khasia was forest-based. They were largely dependent on betel leaf hill farming in LNP and nearly 71% of their mean annual income was derived from this irrespective of farmer category. On average, about 14% of the incomes of the poorer farmers came from forest produce followed by 10% and 6% for medium and rich farmers respectively. Hills and forests were the foundations of their lives and livelihoods, and LNP was the life-blood of Khasia survival. As a sustainable production system, this farming practice plays a vital role in conserving biodiversity in LNP and might be replicated elsewhere.

Small-scale Forestry, 2015

Small-scale Forestry, 2015

Indian Forester, 2000

Abstract The paper describes the present tree stocks and species diversity in 4 different compart... more Abstract The paper describes the present tree stocks and species diversity in 4 different compartments of Sitapahar Forest Reserve (Bangladesh), a wet evergreen forest site. The number of individual tree stems per hectare was highest in Compartment No. 28, whereas ...

Http Dx Doi Org 10 1080 08941920802653521, Aug 12, 2010

Agroforestry Systems, 2015

South Asian upland cultivators are transitioning from subsistence production to commercial produc... more South Asian upland cultivators are transitioning from subsistence production to commercial production using mainly small-scale rubber cultivation, which helps this transition and reduces poverty. This study, conducted October 2007 through February 2009, examines how small-scale rubber planting enhances people's livelihoods. Data were gathered from Bangladesh, India, and Sri Lanka. We found differences in rubber tree stock, growth, management, and livelihood impact. Plantations in India and Sri Lanka were doing well, while Bangladesh tree stock was low. Strong institutional support, proper silvicultural practices, funding for plantation maintenance, and participant awareness of benefits contributed to satisfactory plantation conditions in India and Sri Lanka, where participants realized good earnings from tapping, while Bangladeshi participants earned little. Because monoculture rubber plantations present risks, participants should practice mixed cropping. Rubber agroforestry can be the best alternative to monoculture rubber plantations because it reconciles economic and sustainable uses of natural resources, and biodiversity conservation.

Hill farming practices and their financial impact were investigated by a rapid rural appraisal me... more Hill farming practices and their financial impact were investigated by a rapid rural appraisal method in a hilly village of Chittagong district. The study revealed that flat valleys were utilized for paddy cultivation and major portion of hilly areas were used for naturally grown sungrass production. About 41% of the total net benefit came from paddy cultivation followed by sungras(about 19%) and brinjal (about 17%). It was also found that every farm rear livestock which contribute an extra benefit to the total net benefit of the individual farm. On an average each individual farm (average farm size 2.42 ha) earned Tk. 48705.46 per year as net benefit from hill farming where livestock production contributes about 21% and the rest by the agricrops and others ( i.e. sungrass and banana).

Agroforestry Systems, 2015

Unsustainable land use systems in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) have damaged the environment a... more Unsustainable land use systems in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) have damaged the environment and enhanced vulnerability of indigenous people. Promoting improved land use in degraded and abandoned shifting cultivation areas has been widely suggested for better livelihoods and environmental conservation. This article analysed four major land uses, agroforestry, fruit orchards, shifting cultivation and village common forest (VCF), in the CHT by correlating them with local perceptions. Traditionally, the indigenous people of the CHT are dependent on shifting cultivation and VCF for their livelihood. Agroforestry and orchards are newly introduced land uses in the CHT area. This analysis is performed by using the Strength, Weakness, Opportunity and Threat (SWOT) approach in combination with the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP). The introduction of agroforestry and fruit orchards influenced marginalised indigenous people to reduce the shifting cultivation area. However, potential weaknesses and threats were associated with shifting cultivation, agroforestry and fruit orchards. Except for shifting cultivation, the positive factors of other land uses outweighed the negative ones. The AHP results indicate that while adopting a land use, the respondents prioritised economic benefits (75 % preference) over social (17 %) and environmental aspects (8 %). Considering these three factors, people ranked four land uses in the order of orchards [ agroforestry [ VCF [ shifting cultivation. This suggests that future land use planning in the CHT cannot secure sustainability by mere tradeoffs among the three sustainability factors (social, economic, environmental). Instead, if the activities for achieving social and environmental benefits of a project can be employed to create benefits in terms of income or savings (money/effort/time), they will be well accepted by the marginalised rural communities.

Small-scale Forestry, 2014

Homestead forests in the Teknaf Peninsula ecologically critical area of Cox's Bazar in Bangladesh... more Homestead forests in the Teknaf Peninsula ecologically critical area of Cox's Bazar in Bangladesh have not been widely studied. This paper explores floristic diversity of homestead forests together with their contribution to the household economy and climate change mitigation. Data were collected from a survey of 140 households and a vegetation survey of 70 homesteads in three sites. Villagers allocated 70 % of their homestead area for homestead forestry and altogether 73 plant species were recorded from the study sites. The average density was 4,000 plants/ha. The above-ground biomass was estimated 235.45 Mg/ha, equivalent to 117.73 Mg C/ha. Villagers maintain sustainability of homestead forests by planting seedlings every year and thus ensure several diameter and height classes. Homestead forests contribute substantially to household income, provide fuelwood and timber for own consumption and sale, and protect villagers during cyclones. Homestead forests thus meet the conditions to be a clean development mechanism forestry project which would provide a win-win strategy for involving small-scale farmers in climate change mitigation and adaptation initiatives, and biodiversity conservation.

International Forestry Review, 2009

This study used two contrasting sample villages (one relatively successful and the other relative... more This study used two contrasting sample villages (one relatively successful and the other relatively unsuccessful) as case study sites to investigate the impacts of a forest-based settlement project on community livelihood. It was found that although since customary forestry practices (shifting cultivation) could not support participants' livelihoods all year, joining the settlement project had improved their livelihoods. Many project participants have given up customary forestry practices completely and diversified their livelihood strategies. Due to budget allocation disparities, differences in raising awareness about project benefits, and inconsistencies in monitoring and motivation, project outcomes varied between the villages. Several factors were identified that underlay success or failure of the settlement project in achieving targeted project's objectives. A recommendation is made for effective participation by participants that would heighten the sense of ownership, enhance collective management, and ensure long-term project sustainability.

Society & Natural Resources, 2013

South Asian upland cultivators are transitioning from subsistence production to commercial produc... more South Asian upland cultivators are transitioning from subsistence production to commercial production using mainly small-scale rubber cultivation, which helps this transition and reduces poverty. This study, conducted October 2007 through February 2009, examines how small-scale rubber planting enhances people's livelihoods. Data were gathered from Bangladesh, India, and Sri Lanka. We found differences in rubber tree stock, growth, management, and livelihood impact. Plantations in India and Sri Lanka were doing well, while Bangladesh tree stock was low. Strong institutional support, proper silvicultural practices, funding for plantation maintenance, and participant awareness of benefits contributed to satisfactory plantation conditions in India and Sri Lanka, where participants realized good earnings from tapping, while Bangladeshi participants earned little. Because monoculture rubber plantations present risks, participants should practice mixed cropping. Rubber agroforestry can be the best alternative to monoculture rubber plantations because it reconciles economic and sustainable uses of natural resources, and biodiversity conservation.

Society & Natural Resources, 2010

Small-scale Forestry, 2008

Because of illegal logging, increased population pressure and intensified shifting cultivation, f... more Because of illegal logging, increased population pressure and intensified shifting cultivation, forest coverage of the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) has decreased drastically resulting in land degradation. Many development projects have been implemented to combat forest loss and land degradation and also to improve the livelihoods of the hill people. This paper reports an empirical study of the Upland Settlement Project (USP) of Bangladesh which was undertaken to prevent land degradation and enhance the standard of living of the people. Planters were found to have given up shifting cultivation and adopted soil conserving agroforestry practices, and forest coverage has been increased in the project village. Interacting with project staff members, government officials and NGOs assisted planters in diversifying livelihood strategies thereby reducing dependency on project resources. Rich planters, utilizing their own capacity, expanded their income sources successfully. Poor planters still remain wage labourers because they do not have sufficient finance and networks to invest in productive ventures. Planters' participation in project activities and the information flow between them and project staff were found to be minimal. Suggestions are made for the continuity of project functions, which involve greater participation of planters in rubber management functions, improved information flow, resolution of land tenure and greater equality in distribution of rubber revenue.

Small-scale Forestry, 2009

The Khasia ethnic community of Bangladesh has been a population of forest villagers in the north-... more The Khasia ethnic community of Bangladesh has been a population of forest villagers in the north-eastern hill forests of Bangladesh since the early 1950s, practicing a betel leaf-based agroforestry system on land granted by the Forest Department. Taking a sample forest village of the Sylhet forest division as a case study, this article examines the sustainability attributes of betel leaf production in the agroforestry system. The presence of several positive attributes of sustainability including the composition of agroforestry, disease control, soil fertility management, profitability, socio-cultural acceptability and institutional support indicate that betel leaf production within the agroforestry system is stable under the prevailing traditional management system. Income from the sale of betel leaf is the principal livelihood means and villager's reciprocal contributions help to conserve forest resources. However, problems with land ownership and regular agreement renewal need to be resolved for the sake of their livelihoods and forest conservation.

Small-scale Forestry, 2013

Even though many forest villagers have been living on forest department land and serving the depa... more Even though many forest villagers have been living on forest department land and serving the department in the northeastern hill forests region of Bangladesh since the early 1950s, their livelihood has not yet been fully explored. This paper examines the livelihoods of forest villagers (Khasia ethnic people) and their contribution to forest conservation, using data from the Sylhet forest division. The forest villagers are well-endowed with all the elements of a sustainable livelihoods framework, though human capital in terms of education is not satisfactory. Strong social capital, stable natural capital and a productive market-oriented agroforestry system facilitate the generation of financial and physical capital that make the livelihoods of Khasia people sustainable. At the same time, their reciprocal contributions in terms of forest protection and plantation development support forest conservation. However, some institutional issues such as insecure land tenure with regular agreement renewal problems need to be resolved for the sake of their livelihoods and forest conservation. Lessons learned from the study can be utilized in formulating future participatory forest management schemes in the country.

Journal of Forest Research, 2005

The potentialities of agroforestry are generally investigated through their biophysiological phen... more The potentialities of agroforestry are generally investigated through their biophysiological phenomena, cost-benefit analysis, and possible impact upon poverty reduction. There have been inadequate studies on the actual impacts of agroforestry intervention on small landholders and of farmers' attitudes toward these agroforestry programs. Drawing upon the findings of an empirical study, this article explores the effects of small-scale agroforestry on upland community development in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh. More specifically, the study clarifies the merits and demerits of different agroforestry systems as perceived by farmers, their impacts on the rural economy and the environment, farmers' attitudes toward the adoption of agroforestry, and impacts of various government policies. Field data were collected by administering questions to 90 randomly selected smallholders of the Upland Settlement Project (USP), as well as from project staff. The research tools employed were semistructured interviews, group discussions, and uncontrolled observations. The results indicated that the agroforestry interventions have in fact increased farmers' income through employment and the selling of farm products, as well as by improving the ecological conditions of these areas through reduction of soil erosion, increasing tree coverage, and maintaining soil fertility. The adoption of different agroforestry systems was governed mainly by the farmers' interests in following these techniques, their ability to cultivate the land in the pre-scribed manner, and the market demand for their products. The major obstacles that prevented increased agroforestry improvements included lack of confidence in new land-use systems, inappropriate project design (e.g., top-down innovation approach), and policy issues regarding land tenure.

International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology, 2008

By sampling an upland settlement project (USP) village, this study examined why the project faile... more By sampling an upland settlement project (USP) village, this study examined why the project failed to achieve the planned objectives in some villages, and what livelihood strategies villagers (planters) have adopted to sustain their livelihoods. The paper uses data obtained by qualitative and quantitative methods. The USP was formulated with the objectives of settling 50 landless and marginal tribal families in a project village and introducing agroforestry and rubber plantations for short-and long-term socioeconomic development of planters, in a participatory manner. There are now only 15 planters in the project village and, although agroforestry has progressed well, only 30 to 40% of poor quality rubber trees remain. Planter participation in project activities was limited to wage labour, indicating that the USP failed to adequately achieve all its proposed objectives. In the face of project failure, planters have adopted diversified strategies to maintain their livelihoods. Several shortcomings caused failure of the project, such as the inability of project staff members to organize planters, failure to create awareness among planters about project benefits, lack of regular project money disbursement, sociocultural ignorance, and lack of social capital among planters. Recommendations are made for securing effective participation of local people to assure successful and sustainable project outcomes. Lessons learned will be helpful in formulating future development programmes in this country and elsewhere.

International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, 2005

sity or improve tribal people's livelihoods or the region's forest resources. Reorientation of go... more sity or improve tribal people's livelihoods or the region's forest resources. Reorientation of government policies, easy access to institutional support and the active participation of local people in development intervention are of the utmost importance in order to find alternative land uses for sustainable hill farming, to improve the farmer's living standards and to conserve forests and protect watersheds.