Gary Jones | Nottingham Trent University (original) (raw)

Papers by Gary Jones

Research paper thumbnail of Diversity not quantity in caregiver speech: Using computational modeling to isolate the effects of the quantity and the diversity of the input on vocabulary growth

Children who hear large amounts of diverse speech learn language more quickly than children who d... more Children who hear large amounts of diverse speech learn language more quickly than children who do not. However, high correlations between the amount and the diversity of the input in speech samples makes it difficult to isolate the influence of each. We overcame this problem by controlling the input to a computational model so that amount of exposure to linguistic input (quantity) and the quality of that input (lexical diversity) were independently manipulated. Sublexical, lexical, and multi-word knowledge were charted across development (Study 1), showing that while input quantity may be important early in learning, lexical diversity is ultimately more crucial, a prediction confirmed against chil-dren's data (Study 2). The model trained on a lexically diverse input also performed better on nonword repetition and sentence recall tests (Study 3) and was quicker to learn new words over time (Study 4). A language input that is rich in lexical diversity outperforms equivalent richness in quantity for learned sublexical and lexical knowledge, for well-established language tests, and for acquiring words that have never been encountered before.

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Research paper thumbnail of Identifying the task variables that predict object assembly difficulty

Human Factors: The …, Jan 1, 2006

We investigated the physical attributes of an object that influence the difficulty of its assembl... more We investigated the physical attributes of an object that influence the difficulty of its assembly. Identifying attributes that contribute to assembly difficulty will provide a method for predicting assembly complexity. Despite object assembly being a widespread task, there has been insufficient research into information processing and cognition during assembly. The lack of research means that the variables that affect the performance of procedural assembly tasks with illustration-only instructions are unknown. In Experiment 1, seven physical characteristics (task variables) of assembly objects were systematically varied in a balanced fractional factorial and orthogonal design to create 16 abstract assemblies, which were assembled by 12 participants (6 men and 6 women aged 18-56). A second experiment (20 participants, 8 men and 12 women aged 18 to 52) involved scaled-down models of 8 real-world assemblies. A clear relationship between the task variables and assembly difficulty was found in both studies, and the regression model from the first experiment was able to predict the assembly difficulty timings in Experiment 2. The proposed task variables are associated with assembly difficulty, and the regression analysis has shown four of the task variables to be significant predictors of difficulty. Applications of this research include the use of the regression model as a tool to evaluate the difficulty of assemblies or assembly steps defined by instructions. The task variables can also be used to produce guidelines to ensure that assemblies or assembly steps are manageable.

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Research paper thumbnail of An objective examination of consumer perception of nutrition information based on healthiness ratings and eye movements

Public health nutrition, Jan 1, 2007

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Research paper thumbnail of Identifying the task variables that influence perceived object assembly complexity

Ergonomics, Jan 1, 2004

There is a general lack of understanding as to what issues affect assembly task performance when ... more There is a general lack of understanding as to what issues affect assembly task performance when using diagrammatic instructions because few of the task variables contributing to assembly complexity have been identified. Using a task analysis of a range of self-assembly products, seven task variables hypothesized to predict assembly complexity were identified and studied in the instruction comprehension phase of assembly. Experiment 1 took nine real world assembly instructions and described each in terms of the seven task variables. Seventy-two participants gave a subjective rating of assembly difficulty for each assembly, showing a clear relationship between the task variables and perceived assembly difficulty. As real world assemblies provide little control a second experiment used an orthogonal design to systematically vary the values of each of the assembly task variables in 16 abstract assemblies. Forty-two participants compared the 16 assembly instructions to a final assembly. There was a clear relationship between the task variables and the time taken to view the instructions. Further, it was found that it is possible to predict the complexity of assembly tasks based upon the levels of the task variables identified. The task variables identified are a significant step towards identifying the factors that influence assembly complexity, together with providing progress towards a tool for predicting assembly complexity.

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Research paper thumbnail of Identifying the task characteristics that predict children's construction task performance

Applied Cognitive Psychology, May 1, 2011

Abstract Construction tasks form a major part of children's play and can be linked to achiev... more Abstract Construction tasks form a major part of children's play and can be linked to achievement in maths and science. However there is a lack of understanding of construction task ability and development. Therefore, there is little foundation for the applied use of construction tasks, such as in teaching or research, as there are no apparent methods for assessing difficulty. This empirical research identifies four construction task characteristics that impact on cognition and predict construction task difficulty in children aged 7–8 and ...

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Research paper thumbnail of Identifying the task characteristics that predict children's construction task performance

Applied Cognitive …, Jan 1, 2011

Abstract Construction tasks form a major part of children's play and can be linked to achiev... more Abstract Construction tasks form a major part of children's play and can be linked to achievement in maths and science. However there is a lack of understanding of construction task ability and development. Therefore, there is little foundation for the applied use of construction tasks, such as in teaching or research, as there are no apparent methods for assessing difficulty. This empirical research identifies four construction task characteristics that impact on cognition and predict construction task difficulty in children aged 7–8 and ...

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Research paper thumbnail of Questioning short-term memory and its measurement: Why digit span measures long-term associative learning

Traditional accounts of verbal short-term memory explain differences in performance for different... more Traditional accounts of verbal short-term memory explain differences in performance for different types of verbal material by reference to inherent characteristics of the verbal items making up memory sequences. The role of previous experience with sequences of different types is ostensibly controlled for either by deliberate exclusion or by presenting multiple trials constructed from different random permutations. We cast doubt on this general approach in a detailed analysis of the basis for the robust finding that short-term memory for digit sequences is superior to that for other sequences of verbal material. Specifically, we show across four experiments that this advantage is not due to inherent characteristics of digits as verbal items, nor are individual digits within sequences better remembered than other types of individual verbal items. Rather, the advantage for digit sequences stems from the increased frequency, compared to other verbal material, with which digits appear in random sequences in natural language, and furthermore, relatively frequent digit sequences support better short-term serial recall than less frequent ones. We also provide corpus-based computational support for the argument that performance in a short-term memory setting is a function of basic associative learning processes operating on the linguistic experience of the rememberer. The experimental and computational results raise questions not only about the role played by measurement of digit span in cognition generally, but also about the way in which long-term memory processes impact on short-term memory functioning.

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Research paper thumbnail of Why chunking should be considered as an explanation for developmental change before short-term memory capacity and processing speed

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Research paper thumbnail of Linking working memory and long‐term memory: a computational model of the learning of new words

The nonword repetition (NWR) test has been shown to be a good predictor of children’s vocabulary ... more The nonword repetition (NWR) test has been shown to be a good predictor of children’s vocabulary size. NWR performance has been explained using phonological working memory, which is seen as a critical component in the learning of new words. However, no detailed specification of the link between phonological working memory and long-term memory (LTM) has been proposed. In this paper, we present a computational model of children’s vocabulary acquisition (EPAM-VOC) that specifies how phonological working memory and LTM interact. The model learns phoneme sequences, which are stored in LTM and mediate how much information can be held in working memory. The model’s behaviour is compared with that of children in a new study of NWR, conducted in order to ensure the same nonword stimuli and methodology across ages. EPAM-VOC shows a pattern of results similar to that of children: performance is better for shorter nonwords and for wordlike nonwords, and performance improves with age. EPAM-VOC also simulates the superior performance for single consonant nonwords over clustered consonant nonwords found in previous NWR studies. EPAM-VOC provides a simple and elegant computational account of some of the key processes involved in the learning of new words: it specifies how phonological working memory and LTM interact; makes testable predictions; and suggests that developmental changes in NWR performance may reflect differences in the amount of information that has been encoded in LTM rather than developmental changes in working memory capacity.

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Research paper thumbnail of Why computational models are better than verbal theories: The case of nonword repetition

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Research paper thumbnail of Lexicality and Frequency in Specific Language Impairment: Accuracy and Error Data from Two Nonword Repetition Tests

Deficits in phonological working memory and deficits in phonological processing have both been co... more Deficits in phonological working memory and deficits in phonological processing have both been considered potential explanatory factors in specific language impairment (SLI). Manipulations of the lexicality and phonotactic frequency of nonwords enable contrasting predictions to be derived from these hypotheses.

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Research paper thumbnail of Lexical and sub-lexical knowledge influences the encoding, storage, and articulation of nonwords

Nonword repetition (NWR) has been used extensively in the study of child language. Although lexic... more Nonword repetition (NWR) has been used extensively in the study of child language. Although lexical and sub-lexical knowledge is known to influence NWR performance, there has been little examination of the NWR processes (eg, encoding, storage, articulation) that may be affected by lexical and sub-lexical knowledge. We administered 2-and 3-syllable spoken nonword recognition and nonword repetition tests on two independent groups of 31 children (M= 5; 07).

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Research paper thumbnail of Computer Simulations of Developmental Change: The Contributions of Working Memory Capacity and Long‐Term Knowledge

Increasing working memory (WM) capacity is often cited as a major influence on children’s develop... more Increasing working memory (WM) capacity is often cited as a major influence on children’s development and yet WM capacity is difficult to examine independently of long-term knowledge. A computational model of children’s nonword repetition (NWR) performance is presented that independently manipulates long-term knowledge and WM capacity to determine the relative contributions of each in explaining the developmental data. The simulations show that (1) both mechanisms independently cause the same overall developmental changes in NWR performance; (2) increase in long-term knowledge provides the better fit to the child data; and (3) varying both long-term knowledge and WM capacity adds no significant gains over varying long-term knowledge alone. Given that increases in long-term knowledge must occur during development, the results indicate that increases in WM capacity may not be required to explain developmental differences. Increase in WM capacity should only be cited as a mechanism of developmental change when there are clear empirical reasons for doing so.

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Research paper thumbnail of Acceleration in the bilingual acquisition of phonological structure: evidence from Polish-English bilingual children

Bilingualism: Language and Cognition

This study examines the production of consonant clusters in simultaneous Polish–English bilingual... more This study examines the production of consonant clusters in simultaneous Polish–English bilingual children and in
language-matched English monolinguals (aged 7;01–8;11). Selection of the language pair was based on the fact that Polish allows a greater range of consonant clusters than English. A nonword repetition task was devised in order to examine clusters of different types (obstruent-liquid vs. s + obstruent) and in different word positions (initial vs. medial), two factors that play a significant role in repetition accuracy in monolingual acquisition (e.g., Kirk & Demuth, 2005). Our findings show that bilingual children outperformed monolingual controls in the word initial s + obstruent condition. These results indicate
that exposure to complex word initial clusters (in Polish) can accelerate the development of less phonologically complex clusters (in English). This constitutes significant new evidence that the facilitatory effects of bilingual acquisition extend to structural phonological domains. The implications that these results have on competing views of phonological organisation and phonological complexity are also discussed.

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Research paper thumbnail of Investigating the relationship between nonword repetition performance and syllabic structure in typical and atypical language development

This paper examines the role of syllabic structure in nonword repetition performance in typically... more This paper examines the role of syllabic structure in nonword repetition performance in typically developing (TD) children and children with Specific Language Impairment (SLI).
Eighteen children with SLI (5;7–6;7) and 18 TD children matched for chronological age were tested on their ability to repeat phonemes in different positions within syllable structure (onset, nucleus, coda). The test involved two separate nonword repetition tasks differing in lexicality (high vs. low). High-lexicality nonwords contained subparts that are morphemes of the language (i.e. subparts were “lexical”), whilst non-lexical nonwords did not. Repetition performance across the three syllabic positions showed a significant effect for both populations and on both tasks. However, while on the high-lexicality task the direction of the effect revealed the onset as the most error prone constituent (onset > coda > nucleus) on the low lexicality task it was the coda that attracted most errors (coda > onset > nucleus).
Results suggest that the procedures involved in computing syllabic structure are qualitatively similar in the two populations. We take these results to support the view that different syllabic positions involve different levels of phonological complexity, and that tests that control for lexicality are crucial in illuminating these differences.

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Research paper thumbnail of Computational modelling of phonological acquisition: Simulating error patterns in nonword repetition tasks

Nonword repetition tasks (NWRTs) are employed widely in various studies on language development a... more Nonword repetition tasks (NWRTs) are employed widely in various studies on language development and are often relied upon as diagnostic tools. However, the mechanisms that underlie children’s performance in NWRTs are very little understood. In this paper we present NWRT data from typically-developing five to six year olds (5;4 – 6;8) and examine the pattern of their phonological errors within the syllabic domain. We show that the children display a strong tendency for errors at the syllable onset, with fewer errors in coda position. We then show how the same pattern can be simulated by a computer model, thus shedding some light on the cognitive mechanisms that underlie specific error patterns as well as general phonological development.

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Research paper thumbnail of Testing two cognitive theories of insight.

Insight in problem solving occurs when the problem solver fails to see how to solve a problem and... more Insight in problem solving occurs when the problem solver fails to see how to solve a problem and then – “aha!” – there is a sudden realization how to solve it. Two contemporary theories have been proposed to explain insight. The representational change theory (e.g., Knoblich et al., 2001) proposes that insight occurs through relaxing self-imposed constraints on a problem, and by decomposing chunked items in the problem. The progress monitoring theory (e.g., MacGregor et al., 2001) proposes that insight is only sought once it becomes apparent that the distance to the goal is unachievable in the moves remaining. These two theories are tested in an unlimited move problem, to which neither theory has previously been applied. The results lend support to both, but experimental manipulations to the problem suggest that the representational change theory is the better indicator of performance. The findings suggest that testable opposing predictions can be made to examine theories of insight, and that the use of eye movement data is a fruitful method of both examining insight and testing theories of insight.

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Research paper thumbnail of Investigating the effect of mental set on insight problem solving.

Mental set is the tendency to solve certain problems in a fixed way based on previous solutions t... more Mental set is the tendency to solve certain problems in a fixed way based on previous solutions to similar problems. The moment of insight occurs when a problem cannot be solved using solution methods suggested by prior experience and the problem solver suddenly realizes that the solution requires different solution methods. Mental set and insight have often been linked together and yet no attempt thus far has systematically examined the interplay between the two. Three experiments are presented that examine the extent to which sets of non-insight and insight problems affect the subsequent solutions of insight test problems. The results indicate a subtle interplay between mental set and insight: when the set involves non-insight problems, no mental set effects are shown for the insight test problems, yet when the set involves insight problems, both facilitation and inhibition can be seen depending on the type of insight problem presented in the set. A two process model is detailed to explain these findings that combines the representational change mechanism with that of proceduralisation.

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Research paper thumbnail of Cognitive Mechanisms of Insight: The Role of Heuristics and Representational Change in Solving the Eight-Coin Problem

The 8-coin insight problem requires the problem solver to move 2 coins so that each coin touches ... more The 8-coin insight problem requires the problem solver to move 2 coins so that each coin touches exactly 3 others. Ormerod, MacGregor, and Chronicle (2002) explained differences in task performance across different versions of the 8-coin problem using the availability of particular moves in a 2-dimensional search space. We explored 2 further explanations by developing 6 new versions of the 8-coin problem in order to investigate the influence of grouping and self-imposed constraints on solutions. The results identified 2 sources of problem difficulty: first, the necessity to overcome the constraint that a solution can be found in 2-dimensional space and, second, the necessity to decompose perceptual groupings. A detailed move analysis suggested that the selection of moves was driven by the established representation rather than the application of the appropriate heuristics. Both results support the assumptions of representational change theory (Ohlsson, 1992).

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Research paper thumbnail of Heuristics and representational change in two-move matchstick arithmetic tasks

Insight problems are problems where the problem solver struggles to find a solution until * aha! ... more Insight problems are problems where the problem solver struggles to find a solution until * aha! * the solution suddenly appears. Two contemporary theories suggest that insight problems are difficult either because problem solvers begin with an incorrect representation of the problem, or that problem solvers apply inappropriate heuristics to the problem. The relative contributions of representational change and inappropriate heuristics on the process of insight problem solving was studied with a task that required the problem solver to move two matchsticks in order to transform an incorrect arithmetic statement into a correct one. Problem solvers (N = 120) worked on two different types of two-move matchstick arithmetic problems that both varied with respect to the effectiveness of heuristics and to the degree of a necessary representational change of the problem representation. A strong influence of representational change on solution rates was found whereas the influence of heuristics had minimal effects on solution rates. That is, the difficulty of insight problems within the two move matchstick arithmetic domain is governed by the degree of representational change required. A model is presented that details representational change as the necessary condition for ensuring that appropriate heuristics can be applied on the proper problem representation.

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Research paper thumbnail of Diversity not quantity in caregiver speech: Using computational modeling to isolate the effects of the quantity and the diversity of the input on vocabulary growth

Children who hear large amounts of diverse speech learn language more quickly than children who d... more Children who hear large amounts of diverse speech learn language more quickly than children who do not. However, high correlations between the amount and the diversity of the input in speech samples makes it difficult to isolate the influence of each. We overcame this problem by controlling the input to a computational model so that amount of exposure to linguistic input (quantity) and the quality of that input (lexical diversity) were independently manipulated. Sublexical, lexical, and multi-word knowledge were charted across development (Study 1), showing that while input quantity may be important early in learning, lexical diversity is ultimately more crucial, a prediction confirmed against chil-dren's data (Study 2). The model trained on a lexically diverse input also performed better on nonword repetition and sentence recall tests (Study 3) and was quicker to learn new words over time (Study 4). A language input that is rich in lexical diversity outperforms equivalent richness in quantity for learned sublexical and lexical knowledge, for well-established language tests, and for acquiring words that have never been encountered before.

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Research paper thumbnail of Identifying the task variables that predict object assembly difficulty

Human Factors: The …, Jan 1, 2006

We investigated the physical attributes of an object that influence the difficulty of its assembl... more We investigated the physical attributes of an object that influence the difficulty of its assembly. Identifying attributes that contribute to assembly difficulty will provide a method for predicting assembly complexity. Despite object assembly being a widespread task, there has been insufficient research into information processing and cognition during assembly. The lack of research means that the variables that affect the performance of procedural assembly tasks with illustration-only instructions are unknown. In Experiment 1, seven physical characteristics (task variables) of assembly objects were systematically varied in a balanced fractional factorial and orthogonal design to create 16 abstract assemblies, which were assembled by 12 participants (6 men and 6 women aged 18-56). A second experiment (20 participants, 8 men and 12 women aged 18 to 52) involved scaled-down models of 8 real-world assemblies. A clear relationship between the task variables and assembly difficulty was found in both studies, and the regression model from the first experiment was able to predict the assembly difficulty timings in Experiment 2. The proposed task variables are associated with assembly difficulty, and the regression analysis has shown four of the task variables to be significant predictors of difficulty. Applications of this research include the use of the regression model as a tool to evaluate the difficulty of assemblies or assembly steps defined by instructions. The task variables can also be used to produce guidelines to ensure that assemblies or assembly steps are manageable.

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Research paper thumbnail of An objective examination of consumer perception of nutrition information based on healthiness ratings and eye movements

Public health nutrition, Jan 1, 2007

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Research paper thumbnail of Identifying the task variables that influence perceived object assembly complexity

Ergonomics, Jan 1, 2004

There is a general lack of understanding as to what issues affect assembly task performance when ... more There is a general lack of understanding as to what issues affect assembly task performance when using diagrammatic instructions because few of the task variables contributing to assembly complexity have been identified. Using a task analysis of a range of self-assembly products, seven task variables hypothesized to predict assembly complexity were identified and studied in the instruction comprehension phase of assembly. Experiment 1 took nine real world assembly instructions and described each in terms of the seven task variables. Seventy-two participants gave a subjective rating of assembly difficulty for each assembly, showing a clear relationship between the task variables and perceived assembly difficulty. As real world assemblies provide little control a second experiment used an orthogonal design to systematically vary the values of each of the assembly task variables in 16 abstract assemblies. Forty-two participants compared the 16 assembly instructions to a final assembly. There was a clear relationship between the task variables and the time taken to view the instructions. Further, it was found that it is possible to predict the complexity of assembly tasks based upon the levels of the task variables identified. The task variables identified are a significant step towards identifying the factors that influence assembly complexity, together with providing progress towards a tool for predicting assembly complexity.

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Research paper thumbnail of Identifying the task characteristics that predict children's construction task performance

Applied Cognitive Psychology, May 1, 2011

Abstract Construction tasks form a major part of children's play and can be linked to achiev... more Abstract Construction tasks form a major part of children's play and can be linked to achievement in maths and science. However there is a lack of understanding of construction task ability and development. Therefore, there is little foundation for the applied use of construction tasks, such as in teaching or research, as there are no apparent methods for assessing difficulty. This empirical research identifies four construction task characteristics that impact on cognition and predict construction task difficulty in children aged 7–8 and ...

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Research paper thumbnail of Identifying the task characteristics that predict children's construction task performance

Applied Cognitive …, Jan 1, 2011

Abstract Construction tasks form a major part of children's play and can be linked to achiev... more Abstract Construction tasks form a major part of children's play and can be linked to achievement in maths and science. However there is a lack of understanding of construction task ability and development. Therefore, there is little foundation for the applied use of construction tasks, such as in teaching or research, as there are no apparent methods for assessing difficulty. This empirical research identifies four construction task characteristics that impact on cognition and predict construction task difficulty in children aged 7–8 and ...

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Research paper thumbnail of Questioning short-term memory and its measurement: Why digit span measures long-term associative learning

Traditional accounts of verbal short-term memory explain differences in performance for different... more Traditional accounts of verbal short-term memory explain differences in performance for different types of verbal material by reference to inherent characteristics of the verbal items making up memory sequences. The role of previous experience with sequences of different types is ostensibly controlled for either by deliberate exclusion or by presenting multiple trials constructed from different random permutations. We cast doubt on this general approach in a detailed analysis of the basis for the robust finding that short-term memory for digit sequences is superior to that for other sequences of verbal material. Specifically, we show across four experiments that this advantage is not due to inherent characteristics of digits as verbal items, nor are individual digits within sequences better remembered than other types of individual verbal items. Rather, the advantage for digit sequences stems from the increased frequency, compared to other verbal material, with which digits appear in random sequences in natural language, and furthermore, relatively frequent digit sequences support better short-term serial recall than less frequent ones. We also provide corpus-based computational support for the argument that performance in a short-term memory setting is a function of basic associative learning processes operating on the linguistic experience of the rememberer. The experimental and computational results raise questions not only about the role played by measurement of digit span in cognition generally, but also about the way in which long-term memory processes impact on short-term memory functioning.

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Research paper thumbnail of Why chunking should be considered as an explanation for developmental change before short-term memory capacity and processing speed

Bookmarks Related papers MentionsView impact

Research paper thumbnail of Linking working memory and long‐term memory: a computational model of the learning of new words

The nonword repetition (NWR) test has been shown to be a good predictor of children’s vocabulary ... more The nonword repetition (NWR) test has been shown to be a good predictor of children’s vocabulary size. NWR performance has been explained using phonological working memory, which is seen as a critical component in the learning of new words. However, no detailed specification of the link between phonological working memory and long-term memory (LTM) has been proposed. In this paper, we present a computational model of children’s vocabulary acquisition (EPAM-VOC) that specifies how phonological working memory and LTM interact. The model learns phoneme sequences, which are stored in LTM and mediate how much information can be held in working memory. The model’s behaviour is compared with that of children in a new study of NWR, conducted in order to ensure the same nonword stimuli and methodology across ages. EPAM-VOC shows a pattern of results similar to that of children: performance is better for shorter nonwords and for wordlike nonwords, and performance improves with age. EPAM-VOC also simulates the superior performance for single consonant nonwords over clustered consonant nonwords found in previous NWR studies. EPAM-VOC provides a simple and elegant computational account of some of the key processes involved in the learning of new words: it specifies how phonological working memory and LTM interact; makes testable predictions; and suggests that developmental changes in NWR performance may reflect differences in the amount of information that has been encoded in LTM rather than developmental changes in working memory capacity.

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Research paper thumbnail of Why computational models are better than verbal theories: The case of nonword repetition

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Research paper thumbnail of Lexicality and Frequency in Specific Language Impairment: Accuracy and Error Data from Two Nonword Repetition Tests

Deficits in phonological working memory and deficits in phonological processing have both been co... more Deficits in phonological working memory and deficits in phonological processing have both been considered potential explanatory factors in specific language impairment (SLI). Manipulations of the lexicality and phonotactic frequency of nonwords enable contrasting predictions to be derived from these hypotheses.

Bookmarks Related papers MentionsView impact

Research paper thumbnail of Lexical and sub-lexical knowledge influences the encoding, storage, and articulation of nonwords

Nonword repetition (NWR) has been used extensively in the study of child language. Although lexic... more Nonword repetition (NWR) has been used extensively in the study of child language. Although lexical and sub-lexical knowledge is known to influence NWR performance, there has been little examination of the NWR processes (eg, encoding, storage, articulation) that may be affected by lexical and sub-lexical knowledge. We administered 2-and 3-syllable spoken nonword recognition and nonword repetition tests on two independent groups of 31 children (M= 5; 07).

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Research paper thumbnail of Computer Simulations of Developmental Change: The Contributions of Working Memory Capacity and Long‐Term Knowledge

Increasing working memory (WM) capacity is often cited as a major influence on children’s develop... more Increasing working memory (WM) capacity is often cited as a major influence on children’s development and yet WM capacity is difficult to examine independently of long-term knowledge. A computational model of children’s nonword repetition (NWR) performance is presented that independently manipulates long-term knowledge and WM capacity to determine the relative contributions of each in explaining the developmental data. The simulations show that (1) both mechanisms independently cause the same overall developmental changes in NWR performance; (2) increase in long-term knowledge provides the better fit to the child data; and (3) varying both long-term knowledge and WM capacity adds no significant gains over varying long-term knowledge alone. Given that increases in long-term knowledge must occur during development, the results indicate that increases in WM capacity may not be required to explain developmental differences. Increase in WM capacity should only be cited as a mechanism of developmental change when there are clear empirical reasons for doing so.

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Research paper thumbnail of Acceleration in the bilingual acquisition of phonological structure: evidence from Polish-English bilingual children

Bilingualism: Language and Cognition

This study examines the production of consonant clusters in simultaneous Polish–English bilingual... more This study examines the production of consonant clusters in simultaneous Polish–English bilingual children and in
language-matched English monolinguals (aged 7;01–8;11). Selection of the language pair was based on the fact that Polish allows a greater range of consonant clusters than English. A nonword repetition task was devised in order to examine clusters of different types (obstruent-liquid vs. s + obstruent) and in different word positions (initial vs. medial), two factors that play a significant role in repetition accuracy in monolingual acquisition (e.g., Kirk & Demuth, 2005). Our findings show that bilingual children outperformed monolingual controls in the word initial s + obstruent condition. These results indicate
that exposure to complex word initial clusters (in Polish) can accelerate the development of less phonologically complex clusters (in English). This constitutes significant new evidence that the facilitatory effects of bilingual acquisition extend to structural phonological domains. The implications that these results have on competing views of phonological organisation and phonological complexity are also discussed.

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Research paper thumbnail of Investigating the relationship between nonword repetition performance and syllabic structure in typical and atypical language development

This paper examines the role of syllabic structure in nonword repetition performance in typically... more This paper examines the role of syllabic structure in nonword repetition performance in typically developing (TD) children and children with Specific Language Impairment (SLI).
Eighteen children with SLI (5;7–6;7) and 18 TD children matched for chronological age were tested on their ability to repeat phonemes in different positions within syllable structure (onset, nucleus, coda). The test involved two separate nonword repetition tasks differing in lexicality (high vs. low). High-lexicality nonwords contained subparts that are morphemes of the language (i.e. subparts were “lexical”), whilst non-lexical nonwords did not. Repetition performance across the three syllabic positions showed a significant effect for both populations and on both tasks. However, while on the high-lexicality task the direction of the effect revealed the onset as the most error prone constituent (onset > coda > nucleus) on the low lexicality task it was the coda that attracted most errors (coda > onset > nucleus).
Results suggest that the procedures involved in computing syllabic structure are qualitatively similar in the two populations. We take these results to support the view that different syllabic positions involve different levels of phonological complexity, and that tests that control for lexicality are crucial in illuminating these differences.

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Research paper thumbnail of Computational modelling of phonological acquisition: Simulating error patterns in nonword repetition tasks

Nonword repetition tasks (NWRTs) are employed widely in various studies on language development a... more Nonword repetition tasks (NWRTs) are employed widely in various studies on language development and are often relied upon as diagnostic tools. However, the mechanisms that underlie children’s performance in NWRTs are very little understood. In this paper we present NWRT data from typically-developing five to six year olds (5;4 – 6;8) and examine the pattern of their phonological errors within the syllabic domain. We show that the children display a strong tendency for errors at the syllable onset, with fewer errors in coda position. We then show how the same pattern can be simulated by a computer model, thus shedding some light on the cognitive mechanisms that underlie specific error patterns as well as general phonological development.

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Research paper thumbnail of Testing two cognitive theories of insight.

Insight in problem solving occurs when the problem solver fails to see how to solve a problem and... more Insight in problem solving occurs when the problem solver fails to see how to solve a problem and then – “aha!” – there is a sudden realization how to solve it. Two contemporary theories have been proposed to explain insight. The representational change theory (e.g., Knoblich et al., 2001) proposes that insight occurs through relaxing self-imposed constraints on a problem, and by decomposing chunked items in the problem. The progress monitoring theory (e.g., MacGregor et al., 2001) proposes that insight is only sought once it becomes apparent that the distance to the goal is unachievable in the moves remaining. These two theories are tested in an unlimited move problem, to which neither theory has previously been applied. The results lend support to both, but experimental manipulations to the problem suggest that the representational change theory is the better indicator of performance. The findings suggest that testable opposing predictions can be made to examine theories of insight, and that the use of eye movement data is a fruitful method of both examining insight and testing theories of insight.

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Research paper thumbnail of Investigating the effect of mental set on insight problem solving.

Mental set is the tendency to solve certain problems in a fixed way based on previous solutions t... more Mental set is the tendency to solve certain problems in a fixed way based on previous solutions to similar problems. The moment of insight occurs when a problem cannot be solved using solution methods suggested by prior experience and the problem solver suddenly realizes that the solution requires different solution methods. Mental set and insight have often been linked together and yet no attempt thus far has systematically examined the interplay between the two. Three experiments are presented that examine the extent to which sets of non-insight and insight problems affect the subsequent solutions of insight test problems. The results indicate a subtle interplay between mental set and insight: when the set involves non-insight problems, no mental set effects are shown for the insight test problems, yet when the set involves insight problems, both facilitation and inhibition can be seen depending on the type of insight problem presented in the set. A two process model is detailed to explain these findings that combines the representational change mechanism with that of proceduralisation.

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Research paper thumbnail of Cognitive Mechanisms of Insight: The Role of Heuristics and Representational Change in Solving the Eight-Coin Problem

The 8-coin insight problem requires the problem solver to move 2 coins so that each coin touches ... more The 8-coin insight problem requires the problem solver to move 2 coins so that each coin touches exactly 3 others. Ormerod, MacGregor, and Chronicle (2002) explained differences in task performance across different versions of the 8-coin problem using the availability of particular moves in a 2-dimensional search space. We explored 2 further explanations by developing 6 new versions of the 8-coin problem in order to investigate the influence of grouping and self-imposed constraints on solutions. The results identified 2 sources of problem difficulty: first, the necessity to overcome the constraint that a solution can be found in 2-dimensional space and, second, the necessity to decompose perceptual groupings. A detailed move analysis suggested that the selection of moves was driven by the established representation rather than the application of the appropriate heuristics. Both results support the assumptions of representational change theory (Ohlsson, 1992).

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Research paper thumbnail of Heuristics and representational change in two-move matchstick arithmetic tasks

Insight problems are problems where the problem solver struggles to find a solution until * aha! ... more Insight problems are problems where the problem solver struggles to find a solution until * aha! * the solution suddenly appears. Two contemporary theories suggest that insight problems are difficult either because problem solvers begin with an incorrect representation of the problem, or that problem solvers apply inappropriate heuristics to the problem. The relative contributions of representational change and inappropriate heuristics on the process of insight problem solving was studied with a task that required the problem solver to move two matchsticks in order to transform an incorrect arithmetic statement into a correct one. Problem solvers (N = 120) worked on two different types of two-move matchstick arithmetic problems that both varied with respect to the effectiveness of heuristics and to the degree of a necessary representational change of the problem representation. A strong influence of representational change on solution rates was found whereas the influence of heuristics had minimal effects on solution rates. That is, the difficulty of insight problems within the two move matchstick arithmetic domain is governed by the degree of representational change required. A model is presented that details representational change as the necessary condition for ensuring that appropriate heuristics can be applied on the proper problem representation.

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