Farzad Mahootian | New York University (original) (raw)

Papers by Farzad Mahootian

In this session, we address four fundamental questions related to environmental fields with empha... more In this session, we address four fundamental questions related to environmental fields with emphasis on education. These are: What are the goals, objectives, and practical opportunities for coordinating our projects? How can we improve awareness of, interest in, access to, and support the products of our work? How can we build relationships between projects for scientific, educational, technical, and programmatic benefit? How can we evaluate the effectiveness of coordination efforts. In this working session, we produced answers to these questions and proposed a structure for future collaboration.

The Future Circle of Healthcare AI, 3D Printing, Longevity, Ethics, and Uncertainty Mitigation, 2022

We explore multi-scale relations in artificial intelligence (AI) use in order to identify difficu... more We explore multi-scale relations in artificial intelligence (AI) use in order to identify difficulties with coordinating relations between users, machine learning (ML) processes, and “sociobuilt contexts”—specifically in terms of their applications to medical technologies and decisions. We begin by analyzing a recent COVID-19 machine learning case study in order to present the difficulty of traversing the detailed causal topography of sociobuilt contexts. We propose that the adequate representation of the interactions between social and built processes that occur on many scales ought to drive interdisciplinary approaches for ML modification. Next, we describe ML algorithm development as a process that is partly dependent on methodological stabilization for reliability and partly on coordinating relations. In the coordination between user, ML process, and sociobuilt contexts, we propose that new methods can be explored that promote the inclusion of patients and communities for the purpose of cross-checking portions of the ML process. Finally, we suggest that the advantages of responsible innovation emerge through the iterative entanglement of ethical, methodological, and ontological considerations within the broader conceptual infrastructure of epistemic responsibility.

What is an Element, 2020

The concept of element is fundamental to modern chemistry and yet it embodies an apparently pers... more The concept of element is fundamental to modern chemistry and yet it embodies an apparently persistent ambiguity that has remained unresolved for the nearly one hundred years since it was made official by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemists (IUPAC) in 1923. IUPAC’s Gold Book is the current compendium of definitions and protocols for chemical methods and nomenclature. The Gold Book defines “chemical element” as follows:

1. A species of atoms; all atoms with the same number of protons in the atomic nucleus.
2. A pure chemical substance composed of atoms with the same number of protons in the atomic nucleus. Sometimes this concept is called the elemen¬tary substance as distinct from the chemical element as defined under 1, but mostly the term chemical element is used for both concepts.

This dual definition appears awkward and troublesome for a number of reasons, and yet it has withstood the test of time. This chapter presents a take on why this definition has the form it does, how it arose, and why it endures. Following the introductory overview, there will be two historical sections, one on Immanuel Kant whose imprint on modern philosophy and science persists in various forms, including the genesis and interpretation of the IUPAC definition (see Paneth 2003; Scerri 2000; van Brakel 2006; Ruthenberg 2009; Mahootian 2013). The other section is on Ernst Cassirer, founder of the Marburg school of neo- Kantian thought, who wrote about chemistry both before and after the IUPAC definition above. We conclude with a comparison of Cassirer’s understanding of chemistry, first with the mathematical chemistry of Guillermo Restrepo, and then with Joachim Schummer’s conceptual analysis of the “chemical core of chemistry” (Schummer 1998).

The history of definitions of metaphor is a history of hopeful efforts, none of which fully succe... more The history of definitions of metaphor is a history of hopeful efforts, none of which fully succeed in providing a satisfying answer to the question of what it is. The vagueness of these definitions suggests an ineradicable circularity: definitions of metaphor inevitably rely on metaphors. It is an oddly self-referential bit of language whose description can only ever be a performance of its meaning. The paper begins with a discussion of metaphor in science generally, then proceed to an examination of its role in chemical thinking in three contexts: the history and philosophy of chemistry, laboratory research practice, and chemical education. I aim to show that metaphor is already operative in the concept of chemical element and how its deployment characterizes chemical thinking in general.

Friedrich Paneth's conception of ''chemical element'' has functioned as the official definition a... more Friedrich Paneth's conception of ''chemical element'' has functioned as the official definition adopted by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry since 1923. Paneth maintains a distinction between empirical and ''transcendental'' concepts of element; furthermore, chemical science requires fluctuation between the two. The origin of the empirical-transcendental split is found in Immanuel Kant's classic Critique of Pure Reason (1781/1787). The present paper examines Paneth's foundational concept of element in light of Kant's attempt, late in life, to revoke key distinctions made in his Critique, including that of regulative and constitutive functions of reason. In a section of his Opus postumum devoted to the ''Transition from the Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science to Physics,'' Kant bends his philosophical system to address the newly emerging sciences of matter of his time. Specifically, he tried, without success, to develop the transcendental ground for microscale motions of bodies encountered in physical, electrical and chemical processes. Paneth's discussion of chemical element does not take the Opus postumum into account, which is why it begins with a rejection of Kant's rejection (in his earlier writings) of chemistry's status as science. I make the case that Paneth's definition of element effectively maintains something very like Kant's critical separation of regulative and constitutive principles, while a advancing the concept of chemical science.

Intuition in Mathematics & Physics: A Whiteheadian Approach. Toward Ecological Civilization Series, Volume X. Jeanyne B. Slettom, Series Editor (Process Century Press 2006)

Intuition, for Whitehead, is a form of judgment on the threshold of consciousness. He divided wha... more Intuition, for Whitehead, is a form of judgment on the threshold
of consciousness. He divided what he called "intuitive judgments" into
three classes: affirmative, negative, and suspended. The first two address
prehensive conformation (affirmatively or negatively) with external data.
The third form of intuitive judgment neither affirms nor denies conformity
with the data. It entertains propositions (to use Whitehead's
term) but does not judge them (PR 270). This "suspense" form of intuitive
judgment most closely corresponds to C. G. Jung's idea of active
intuition and C. S. Peirce's abductive inference in that it is creative and
speculative, originary, and not reproductive. Whitehead believed that
this active mode of intuition creates novelty and contributes to the creative
advance, in Bergson's language, of the universe. Similarly, Peirce's
abductive inference originates the premises of scientific inquiry, thus
new potential knowledge.Whitehead considered consciousness to be interstitial: it is "located" between the biological cells rather than "in" them. This interstitiality is structurally similar to active, i.e., nonjudgmental, intuition, which is suspended between a pair of binary opposites, i.e., affirmative/negative judgment.

Since the 1970s, governments of industrialized nations have taken steps to monitor the societal a... more Since the 1970s, governments of industrialized nations have taken steps to monitor the societal and ethical impacts of science and technology. By the end of the century, government programs were established with the aim of making science and technology more socially conscious. Scholarship in fields collectively known as Science and Technology Studies (STS) developed more concrete, complex, and humanly plausible images of science, warts and all. In this article, we focus on a specific subset of STS known as laboratory engagement studies (LES) whose explicit purpose is to amplify the reflexive awareness of scientists to inculcate the notion of responsible innovation. LES is a response to the lack of significant integration between physical and social sciences, but what is often lacking is a sophisticated understanding of basic psychological processes. We focus on the psychology of Carl G. Jung which elaborates several key concepts pertinent to the significantly unconscious relationship between science, technology and society.

Rational Intuition: Philosophical Roots, Scientific Investigations, 2014

Our approach to Rational Intuition reflects the shared purpose of other chapters in this volume: ... more Our approach to Rational Intuition reflects the shared purpose of other chapters in this volume: to explore and articulate the relationship between rationality and intuition. Both Carl Gustav Jung and Alfred North Whitehead were conversant with the history of these terms. In Jung’s view, thinking and feeling are aspects of what he called the “rational functions,” while intuition and sensation are aspects of the nonrational, or what he called the “irrational functions” of the psyche – where psyche refers to “the totality of all psychic processes, conscious as well as unconscious” (Jung, 1921, p. 463 §797). Whitehead’s philosophy emphasized feeling over the other functions. In their discussion of traditional mental functions, both followed the general direction laid out by Aristotle and the epistemological traditions that grew out of his writings on logic and rhetoric.1 However, each introduced innovations in order to address specific philosophical issues of interest to them.
Terms such as intuition, sensation, feeling, and thinking have a very long history in both common language and the technical discourse of philosophy. A comparison of Jung and Whitehead on the issue of rational intuition in the span of a single chapter is challenging, given the divergence of their original and sometimes idiosyncratic use of terms. Looking beyond obvious differences, certain features of their intellectual stance reveal agreement in spirit: both delighted in openly exploring a given topic in the course of explaining it; their thoughts often recurred to the unresolved complexities they have created in framing the topic; and both were unrelentingly empirical. Both men were concerned about the polarities generated by the European Enlightenment, both strove to heal the bifurcation of human life into mental and physical realms. Jung and Whitehead believed that feeling is an evaluative, selective, and thus rational function. Regarding intuition, both agreed that it does in some sense precede logical inference and discursive thinking. However, Jung’s innovations with regard to his theory of psychological types and the process of individuation gave intuition additional capacities that cause it to deviate somewhat from standard usage in interesting ways. Whitehead, on the other hand, followed the classical usage and spent less time on intuition but distinguished its active and passive modes in ways and for reasons that are significantly similar to Jung’s approach.

World Futures, 2009

The hypothetico-deductive (HD) framework, its inductive and statistical variants, and other logic... more The hypothetico-deductive (HD) framework, its inductive and statistical variants, and other logic-based approaches to modeling scientific explanation were developed long before the information age. Since that time, data volumes and computing power have increased by orders of magnitude and reshaped the practice and concept of science. A new observational-inductive (OI) framework for scientific research is emerging due to recent developments in sensors, data systems, computers, and knowledge discovery techniques. We examine the nature of these changes and their impact on the question of what is meant by "science" and conclude that the HD and OI frameworks are complementary and synergistic.

Philosophy of Engineering and Technology, 2013

Building Better Humans? Refocusing the Debate on Transhumanism , 2012

This chapter engages transhumanism from the Sufi perspective. The notion of a ''perfect human nat... more This chapter engages transhumanism from the Sufi perspective. The notion of a ''perfect human nature'' makes a comparison with transhumanism compelling. In Christianity Jesus Christ embodies the human ideal; in Islam the discourse on ''perfect human nature'' centers around Mohammad. The Qur'an presents itself as the continuation of revelations that began in the Hebrew Bible, recounting the lineage of prophets beginning with Adam and finding its completion in Mohammad, the ''seal of prophecy.'' Sufism, the mystical side of Islam, takes the idea of the perfect human personally, if not literally, and strives to interpret and apply this possibility in spiritual practice. A closer look at the Islamic idea of ''perfect human nature'' presents a vantage point from which to reflect on the transhumanist project of improving the flaws of human nature. I argue that the co-presence rational and mystical tendencies is common to both transhumanism and Sufism, and while the intersection is often unconscious and relatively undifferentiated in the former case and relatively well-differentiated in the latter. I contend that, although transhumanists are moved by the same transcendental urges, they act on them in ways that are ultimately futile at best or, at worse, self-defeating.

Socrates never wrote anything for posterity. Neither did Moses, Jesus or Mohammad; but unlike the... more Socrates never wrote anything for posterity. Neither did Moses, Jesus or Mohammad; but unlike them, Socrates did not claim to be a messenger of God. What differentiates Socrates so strongly from these great figures is that he denied being a teacher. On the one hand we have the tradition of great teachers, on the other we have Socrates' explicit disavowal of the very possibility of teaching (e.g., Meno, Epistle VII). If we take him at his word, “teachings of Socrates" would be an oxymoron, and yet he is rightly considered to be one of the world's greatest teachers, the very exemplar of an ideal form of education: "Socratic method." It seems that the simple act of introducing Socrates introduces paradox but it becomes clear that Socrates himself provoked paradox intentionally and, as I hope to show, succeeds in purposefully deploying paradox for the sake of deeper self-understanding. .

Marine Pollution Bulletin, 1997

This paper is an introduction to the Arctic Observatory CD-ROM that accompanies this special issu... more This paper is an introduction to the Arctic Observatory CD-ROM that accompanies this special issue. The data and information upon which this CD-ROM is based was derived from a prototype geographical information system (GIS). A simple graphical user interface (GUI) was developed specifically for the presentation of the GIS data and information in an educational environment. However, the utility of efficient access to a large volume of browse data of multiple parameters extends beyond the educational context. This effort is an example of how researchers can place their data and information in a format that is available for examination by others in the field, non-experts, and students interested in the field of study. To demonstrate the utility of the Arctic Observatory CD-ROM for research purposes, we analyzed a specific anomaly in ice concentration values which came to our attention during our tests of the GUI.

The authors consider the benefits that ensued as a result of the creation of the old scientific s... more The authors consider the benefits that ensued as a result of the creation of the old scientific societies such as the Royal Society. These institutions only cater for the postgraduate community. The authors therefore consider the position of both undergraduate and school science and they outline their efforts to create a high school curriculum for Earth System Science (ESS). ESS is a holistic approach to the study of the Earth that stresses investigations of the interactions among the Earth's components in order to explain Earth dynamics, Earth evolution and global change. The challenge to ESS is to develop the capability to understand those changes that will occur in the next decade to century, both naturally and in response to human activity. ESS, by design, intensifies the significance of scientific community-building. In May of 1993, ECOlogic was awarded a contract by NASA Space Data and Computing Division through the High Performance Computing and Communications program. Under that two-year contract, the authors worked closely with NASA scientists and staff to develop ECOlogica, a multimedia Earth System Science curriculum using NASA computational resources delivered over the Internet using the World Wide Web (WWW). In support of this effort, NASA Science Internet installed a DS 1 high-speed connection to the Internet at their host institution, Gonzaga College High School. ECOlogica set down the foundation for an Earth System Science curriculum. The instructional and curricular design approaches and methods of getting advice and support from researchers and data providers were tested and refined in pilot classes

IGARSS'97. 1997 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium Proceedings. Remote Sensing - A Scientific Vision for Sustainable Development, 1997

Earth system science (ESS) is a holistic study of the Earth. ESS marshals the resources a variety... more Earth system science (ESS) is a holistic study of the Earth. ESS marshals the resources a variety of scientific and technical fields to explore interactions among the Earth's component subsystems in order to understand the Earth as a system, to explain Earth dynamics and Earth ...

… and Remote Sensing, 1997. IGARSS'97. …, 1997

The shape of a protein molecule determines its functionality. Until very recently, a protein’s th... more The shape of a protein molecule determines its functionality. Until very recently, a protein’s three-dimensional shape— what chemists call its “secondary structure”— was thought to result from its “primary structure,” the sequence of amino acids that compose it. Current research has challenged this seemingly firm and reasonable assumption. In late-2006, cancer researchers speculated that the timing and pace of protein production can affect its shape without changing its amino acid sequence. This finding indicates an interesting connection between the molecule’s temporal structure (i.e., history) and its shape. We examine the possibility that space-binding and time-binding processes (i.e., molecular structure and bondformation) are closely linked and that learning to manipulate time by influencing timing may be at least as effective as nanotechnological manipulation of the spatial location of individual atoms and molecules. The shape of a protein molecule determines its functionality...

Marine Pollution Bulletin, 1997

The Future Circle of Healthcare AI, 3D Printing, Longevity, Ethics, and Uncertainty Mitigation, 2022

What is an Element, 2020

Intuition in Mathematics & Physics: A Whiteheadian Approach. Toward Ecological Civilization Series, Volume X. Jeanyne B. Slettom, Series Editor (Process Century Press 2006)

Rational Intuition: Philosophical Roots, Scientific Investigations, 2014

World Futures, 2009

Philosophy of Engineering and Technology, 2013

Building Better Humans? Refocusing the Debate on Transhumanism , 2012

Marine Pollution Bulletin, 1997

IGARSS'97. 1997 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium Proceedings. Remote Sensing - A Scientific Vision for Sustainable Development, 1997

… and Remote Sensing, 1997. IGARSS'97. …, 1997

Marine Pollution Bulletin, 1997