John James | UNSW - Academia.edu (original) (raw)

Papers by John James

The Worlds of Villard de Honnecourt: The Portfolio, Medieval Technology, and Gothic Monuments,, 2023

Because there were technical differences between medieval practice and modern none of our assumpt... more Because there were technical differences between medieval practice and modern none of our assumptions of the past are meaningful. The built no more than8 to 12 courses per season, and on large jobs less. They measured nothing and therefore could not pass precise instructions to others. The designs for templates were extracted from whatever had been already built. Therefore, when a mason came to a new job he devised his own designs on anything not already started.
It follows there were no architects, no master plans save as sketches and no working drawings.
Under these conditions how were the great works designed and built?

John James, The Creation of Gothic Architecture - an Illustrated Thesaurus: The Ark of God, vols 1-2, Part A: "The Evolution of Foliate Capitals in the Paris Basin 1170 to 1250", London and Hartley Vale, 2002., 2002

The recorded dates for Canterbury Cathedral verify the dates for the capitals, and these show how... more The recorded dates for Canterbury Cathedral verify the dates for the capitals, and these show how the formal more abstract way of carving was supplanted by the foliate way during the 1170s. The percentage of formals versus foliates indicates the year of carving with some precision. This date marks one of the major boundaries in the creation of gothic imagery. For a full discussion on these boundaries see https://www.academia.edu/31619429

ISAA Review, 2023

In 1932, a group of ex-army conservatives known as the New Guard made three attempts at a coup d’... more In 1932, a group of ex-army conservatives known as the New Guard made three attempts at a coup d’état to take over the administration of NSW and imprison the ministry of the Lang Labor Government. This paper tells the story of these three attempted coups. In spite of the violent language and the savage militancy of the New Guard, we can say that Australians of the depression were not ready for dictatorship. Seven New Guard Council members were to be charged with sedition but, in the way we know so well, the indictment was dropped when their conservative friends were elected to the state parliament.

Parergon, 1997

Chartres to the southwest—an area of less than 200 by 140 ktiometres with Paris lying in the west... more Chartres to the southwest—an area of less than 200 by 140 ktiometres with Paris lying in the western haU. Ninety percent of these churches Ue within the geological formation k n o w n as the Paris Basin, consisting of a limestone caUed calcaire. There is excetient butiding stone beyond the Basin, mainly in hard chalk and sandstone, but few butidings with Gothic motifs were butit from other than calcaire until the 1220s.

When I wonder how the complex geometric systems used by the masters were evolved, I think of thes... more When I wonder how the complex geometric systems used by the masters were evolved, I think of these four windows. In them a simple design became increasingly complex and was gradually integrated with major elements beyond the staircase it illuminated. We can see he was trying to link a small item with the greater parts, to create a web of connections that would bind the building into a whole. If he were eager to pursue this process in the small unit of a staircase window, then we should consider how he would approach the larger and more vital structural parts of the building. There are four windows in the transept porches that look out from the stairs. They are easily accessible from the outside [a]. They were installed by the master Bronze in 1198. The slight 'improvements' to the geometry suggest they were designed in the following order: that into the SE stair was the first as its layout is the simplest, then the SW, followed by the NW and NE on the other side of the building. This order of construction is consistent with the order of other elements in the cathedral. Generally, windows in medieval stairs are larger on the inside than out-possibly following the reasoning that the smaller the outside the more effectively it would keep out the rain, and the larger the inside the more light will be spread into the room.

Gesta, 1993

There is compelling evidence that the Saint-Denis ambulatory was built by two very different team... more There is compelling evidence that the Saint-Denis ambulatory was built by two very different teams of masons. The large windows were built first and the double ambulatory followed. The first master intended groin vaults, and the second turned that into rib vaults. There is comparable work by both masters in twenty other contemporary buildings, so their work in Saint-Denis was NOT a deliberate essay in a new gothic style, but the fortuitous conjunction of two different builders. Also, the design was no repeated elsewhere for another 20 years.
It was therefore NOT the iconic design by Abbot Suger.

Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, 1992

The lithic evidence from some 20 churches shows that the flying buttress was first used in the 11... more The lithic evidence from some 20 churches shows that the flying buttress was first used in the 1150s, immediately after the Second Crusade. This reflected a new way of thinking about structures that had been stimulated in the first place by the rib - a view from seeing the building as mass to seeing it as a collection of axes, or as lines of stress. This was the first time in history that masonry had been conceived as if it were timber.

Comparative Religion, xi 1977, 92-115.

The labyrinth set into the floor of Chartres cathedral measures almost thirteen meters across. It... more The labyrinth set into the floor of Chartres cathedral measures almost thirteen meters across. It is the single largest decorative item in the building, larger than the rose windows and larger than the sculptured doors. In many churches the prelates placed them in prominent positions as testaments to their faith, but it took the eighteenth century to recognise their essentially pagan origins. They destroyed many of them: at Reims, Sens, Arras, Auxerre and St. Omer, and in the next century at Amiens and Caen. Yet would the Middle Ages have used a pagan motif without ensuring that it had a Christian message? And would they have given it such prominence in the centre of the nave if its Christian qualities had not superseded its pagan ones? I feel that after the sacred relics and the cathedral building itself, the labyrinth was the most
meaningful cult-object of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Its sacred nature is indicated by the names given it throughout Europe of 'Chemin de Jérusalem', 'Iherusalem' and 'City of God'.

Archeologists dig out and remove their evidence. we can do that as historians of existing structu... more Archeologists dig out and remove their evidence. we can do that as historians of existing structures. These are the techniques required the extract the history from standing stone buildings without having to pull them down to do so,.

Among the first pointed arches in northern France are some derived from the East where wood for f... more Among the first pointed arches in northern France are some derived from the East where wood for formwork was rare - the peaked arch.

Sumner Crosby printed a well-known section that showed an elevation not unlike Saint-Germain-des-... more Sumner Crosby printed a well-known section that showed an elevation not unlike Saint-Germain-des-Prés with a gallery, clerestory and high vault. Yet he wrote that "even my own enthusiasm for Suger's abilities questions the possibility of his erecting such a complex structure, especially one so novel, in such a short time".

Nomenclature, should be so clear and simple that you can visualise the form of the church from th... more Nomenclature, should be so clear and simple that you can visualise the form of the church from the code.

There are three important aspects of mortars: the fabrication of the materials, the amount of shr... more There are three important aspects of mortars: the fabrication of the materials, the amount of shrinkage, and time needed for initial set. Modern mortars are made from cement or lime. Cement can set harder than the materials it joins, so that movement in the structure may not be taken up in the joints but in unsightly rupturing of the stones themselves. Lime mortar, being invariably weaker than stone or brick, will be the first to crack when there is settlement, so that the movement takes place along the joints. This leaves the base material of the construction unharmed. Cement mortar is rarely used today in renovations. Modern mortars are hydraulic, for they set through the interaction between lime and water. The process was invented by the Romans, though rarely used by their successors until the eighteenth century. In the Middle Ages chalk or limestone was quarried in lumps which were burnt in a kiln to remove the carbon dioxide and the water. The chemical removal of the carbon dioxide ensured that the calcium and magnesium carbonates in the stone would not recombine until carbon dioxide was added, thus preventing setting. After burning, this material is called quicklime. The quicklime was then placed in pits and slaked with water, causing a violent reaction as the water boiled and sent steam into the air. During this process the lumps of chalk broke down into a uniform, soft and rather greasy paste, which was then strained and put into bins. It has a fatty consistency like putty. To ensure that the entire mass was thoroughly slaked, it remained in the pits for at least two weeks, though two months was considered better. Properly prepared and protected from the air under a thin layer of water, the lime remained fatty, which is the word we use when it is easy to work. Drying should not be confused with setting. Water did not help the material set, but made it plastic enough to be worked. The set occurred through contact with carbon dioxide in the air. 2 The hydration we expect from modern limes did not occur, because after the boiling, little hydrocity was left. This is why the lime mortar that has been isolated in pockets of the construction away from the air has remained unset indefinitely. 3 However, the disadvantage of quicklime is that it shrinks as the moisture evaporates. Even if sand is added, the shrinkage is only slightly reduced. Consequently, in bulk construction (as in thick walls and vaulting cells) there was a maximum permissible rate of construction so the core could achieve some degree of set before being loaded. Even in the thinner beds between courses of ashlar the setting took a long time, though it was accelerated by adding materials which contained air, such as crushed tiles or bricks, carbon, volcanic ash, and at times animal blood or urine. These necessary delays had to be taken into account in every building, and are mentioned in some contracts for towers. 4 In constructing walls, the slowness of the set produced two practical problems. First, as more stones were placed onto the wall, the mortar in the lower courses could be squeezed out. Second, in thick walls where the space between thin slabs of ashlar facing were filled in with rubble and mortar, the newly placed wet fill could push outwards and dislodge the facing. If the mortar beds were too thick, the strength of the mortar became critical to the stability of the building. It has been suggested that the collapse of the crossing tower at Winchester in the eleventh century could be attributed to the enormously thick joints, which can still be seen in those parts of the tower which remain. 5 To minimize compression of the mortar, spacers such as oyster shells were sometimes placed in the bed joints. Pebbles and the larger aggregate in the mortar may have been intended to serve the same purpose but were less predictable. No evidence has been found in the Paris Basin for spacers before the sixteenth century. 6 These difficulties were greatly exacerbated in arches and vaults where the stonework had to be supported on centring. The purpose of centring was to support the voussoirs until an initial set had occurred. This set had to be at least sufficient to hold the weight of the stones without allowing the mortar to be squeezed out of the joints. The time needed for this set and the amount of the shrinkage is a little difficult to calculate, yet it is imperative to our understanding of the erection process to know something of these problems. When the cloister arches were rebuilt at Canterbury it was discovered from the geometry of the voussoirs that the arches had settled about 15 mm. over a span of four meters. 7 If the arches had been loaded before settlement was complete, the voussoirs would have dropped away leaving a big crack between the arch and the spandrel over it, which would then have been unsupported. This settlement would have been noticeable in masonry, and the cracks would have allowed the frost to penetrate between the voussoirs. If the span had been greater these cracks could have caused major structural distress.

there are tao types of imposts. tney were carved by some of the best men in the team. These conne... more there are tao types of imposts. tney were carved by some of the best men in the team. These connections tell us a lot about the history of the great portals.

The capitals are set at seriously different levels. There is logic in each level, but nothing app... more The capitals are set at seriously different levels. There is logic in each level, but nothing apparent that would justify the 400mm difference between opposite sides of the crossing. Large consequences flowed from this difference, the most obvious that the arches between these capitals had to be exceptionally stilted on the low side. Not noticeable from underneath, but very clear from the nave. Many of the churches we visited have these imbalances. Most immediately recognized in the bases, where one side of the building will be a course or more above the other, such as Monthodon. I think this has to do with the sacredness of existing structures, which may have been destroyed or rebuilt since then. Every part of the church was consecrated as it was built. These were important ceremonies, and in many cases are the only records that have survived. Consecration sanctified the structure. It aligned the work with God's purpose and, in the mystical sense, became Divine. Once stones had been placed in a campaign they do not seem to have been touched in any later work, even if the design was radically changed in later campaigns. No one tidied up the older work that was out of step with the new. This may have been an economic decision, but it may also have been because once placed into the building it was consecrated and could not be touched. The second consideration is that not all alignments-of parts or whole elements-followed pure geometric forms. The angle between the sides of the apse at Auvers, measure 80 degrees, rather than 90, for example. The inclination of the bases at Glennes were twisted away from the square in order to align with something, though we were not clear on what. In the geometric studies at Chartres I found a logical purpose in most of the irregularly shaped elements. The geometry would be formed on its own principles-such as relating to structure-but would then be 'distorted' so the sides would be aligned on important nearby elements. For example, the octagons under the choir flyers were not true octagons, but were twisted to connect with the clerestory piers or the faces of the external buttresses. Like the worshiper, the mason is trying to connect his work with God. Making connections is essential element in any sacred journey. We would say today that every part is connected to every other part, and if I knew Latin I am sure we would find similar phrases from the texts. So, in laying out the structure they would be mindful of other parts and would want to integrate the old with the new. How better to do that than by a little twisting of sides or modifying of heights. And the major tool in accomplishing this task would have been string. Any work on a building site involves string as much as a square or a compass. String makes sure all the faces are in a common alignment. It connects. It was through the use of string at Chartres that I established the relationships between 'misalignments' and where they were connected. To return to the different levels at Mogneville I would postulate that the different heights were attempts to make connections with the nave. There are remnants of a much earlier structure on the south wall. There are parts of a possible arcade and a clerestory window that would have formed a much smaller building with a somewhat lower floor level. The height to the top of a wall suggested by the height of the old clerestory window arch could have been exactly that of the lower capital. Thus, by lowering the capital on one side they would have connected the new work with the old. They would not have intended to demolish the nave at that time. It was the consecrated 'home' for the congregation. The choir, the crossing and its new tower were not an add-on but an integral extension of the older edifice that had served them so well. Not to have attempted such connections-for I am sure there were others-would have separated the new from the old. The separation would not only have been visual but psychological. They may not have been noticed after a while, but at the time were part of the mind set of the builders, part of the discussion between mason and client, and part of the appreciation for the new structure encouraged among those who were going to pay for it.

Careful measurements of Chapel in the White Tower, London disclose a fundamental design technique... more Careful measurements of Chapel in the White Tower, London disclose a fundamental design technique of medieval builders- the deliberate use of "error" to be able to reconcile multiple geometric systems. it is dialectics in the stonework.

A attempt to calculate the percentage of the population engaged in church building construction i... more A attempt to calculate the percentage of the population engaged in church building construction in the thirteenth century.

This master was the originator of one of the more popular designs for capitals in northern France... more This master was the originator of one of the more popular designs for capitals in northern France, passed it on to Strapper who had many pupils or copyists.

Strapper created one of the major designs used by many carvers across northern France after the s... more Strapper created one of the major designs used by many carvers across northern France after the second crusade.

The Worlds of Villard de Honnecourt: The Portfolio, Medieval Technology, and Gothic Monuments,, 2023

ISAA Review, 2023

Parergon, 1997

Gesta, 1993

Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, 1992

Comparative Religion, xi 1977, 92-115.

Medieval building records are in many currencies and are extremely difficult to translate into mo... more Medieval building records are in many currencies and are extremely difficult to translate into modern equivalents. To circumvent these difficulties I have employed an arbitrary unit of work based on bulk billing techniques used by quantity surveyors. This is widely employed today as an extremely effective method for making initial cost estimates with minimal errors. As some churches were built in small increments over many decades, while others were completed with great rapidity, I needed a unit that would be small enough to provide realistic figures in the former without becoming too huge in the latter. I settled on using a unit, six of which would pay for one small vaulted bay in the aisle, or a small first-floor gallery. Such a bay would consist of an external wall with a small window, half of two columns about 2.5 meters tall, the floor and footings under them and the vault and roof overhead.

Though the records give us the names of medieval units, and occasional metal rods provide exact l... more Though the records give us the names of medieval units, and occasional metal rods provide exact lengths, little is known of most of the lengths being used. In the 1790s the French Metric Commission surveyed the units of measure used in France before creating the metric system. They found thousands of units currently
employed, with separate lengths and names for measuring cloth, tin, gold, firewood and scantling. Even within the one town there could be five separate units in use, with each being displayed on metal bars fixed to the -
jambs of the gates into the town.
The variety of units employed in the twelfth century may have been similar. Anyone trading in the medieval world had to handle proportional computation to survive. No two medieval towns had the same foot unit, and within a town few industries shared the same foot either. The measure for cloth was different to the measure for wood. If a Florentine merchant traveled to Milan to buy cloth, not only were the measurements different, but so was the money. He would only know he were getting a good buy if he could sort out the ratios between the different measures and moneys. There were no calculators and fractions were not easy to work out. .

Template-makers of the Paris Basin, 2006

Tracery was invented in Essomes and then developed in Reims, but a dozen years earlier a young bl... more Tracery was invented in Essomes and then developed in Reims, but a dozen years earlier a young bloke experimented with the concept in four panels in the Chartres transepts, and we can follow his ideas step by step. This is such a treat!

Updating the proposal I made in 1972 that "The cathedral of Chartres was not designed by three ar... more Updating the proposal I made in 1972 that "The cathedral of Chartres was not designed by three architects, or even five or six: in our sense of the word there were no architects at all, only building contractors" and that after their stint on the job "they would leave the site in a body, the crews intact under their master, to find another project." In no uncertain terms the academic establishment pilloried me for this interpretation. Now, fifty years and over a hundred publications later, I withdraw nothing but for one correction, that the short campaigns were not due to constraints in funding but to something much more fundamental.....

The errors in the upper parts of the Portal are manifold, and have kept us arguing the cause for ... more The errors in the upper parts of the Portal are manifold, and have kept us arguing the cause for centuries, especially in the south. The history looks complicated, and it is.
It has not been solved as long as scholars have been looking for simple answers. The turgid history precludes simplicity. To understand the story, we have to attend to five building campaigns, three large teams of imagiers plus a couple of smaller groups, and accept that without documentation changes were inevitable under such a variety of decision-makers.
The first major infraction was when the north plinth was placed 5±cm to the east. This one mistake spawned a cavalcade of changes that created a portal like none had seen before. Yet, from this small offset came innovations that may not have occurred otherwise.
For example, when the design was changed they simply cut the feet off these two Apostles to make them fit. Does this not remind you of the vandalism of the colonnettes?

Chartres Royal Portal Studies, 2021

Some of the most intricate and careful carving in the portal is found in the thin colonnettes bet... more Some of the most intricate and careful carving in the portal is found in the thin colonnettes between the column figures. Some are exquisite. Yet many have been butchered and shortened without any apparent rhyme or reason. Indeed, twenty out of forty-three have been shortened.
If the twenty truncated shafts had not been cut there would have been enough to complete the colonnettes if they had been correctly arranged. The sorrow is that they weren’t, because the height of the doors had been changed so the shafts carved from the time the templates were made would no longer fit when the next crew came to install them.
I offer two approaches to discover what happened. Firstly, I will reassemble the uncut shafts to see if it is possible to rearrange them in the way they were intended, and secondly, I will seek the governing geometric principles in that arrangement.
If order were possible, and if that order arose from consistent principles, then we may hope to have found an earlier design that was later so that the shafts no longer fitted into the space allocated to them.

Articles and books by John James on medieval art and architecture 1972 to 2021

creationofgothic.org, 2020

Here is Part 4b in the series on the history of the Chartres Royal Portal. It has been split it i... more Here is Part 4b in the series on the history of the Chartres Royal Portal. It has been split it into two parts - Part B has the basic data - great pictures of the shafts, their division into carving gangs, and a short description for each.
This is not builders work, but the most highly skilled work by the most treasured men on the site, the specialist carvers. The men who really knew how to work the stone.
These shafts were stored in the shed until the site was ready for them. Because the shafts could not be erected straight away (unlike the embrasures) and because the architects were continuously replaced, confusion descended. This I will explain in the next section, Part 4a.
There are forty-four shafts, and some are among the most spectacular miniatures in France. This would be more obvious if they were not concealed behind the more public column-statues.
Thirty-eight shafts can be divided into eleven teams from their templates, and a further six were solo products. Most of the teams have been named to make it easier to discuss, and to give them an apparent verisimilitude.

Dans les baies occidentales de Notre Dame de Senlis se trouve une série de capitaux spectaculaire... more Dans les baies occidentales de Notre Dame de Senlis se trouve une série de capitaux spectaculaires. Ils sont larges et complexes et leur style démontre un créateur doué d'un talent consommé, un artiste qui exerce un contrôle majestueux de sa conception et ses éléments. Le mot flamboyant l'illustre parfaitement. Le dessin est composé d'un cercle de vignes entourant un bouquet suspendu, comme une couronne florale.

The purpose of this study is to identify each of the carvers of the capitals from the first build... more The purpose of this study is to identify each of the carvers of the capitals from the first building program in the gallery from around 1164, and to use that information to gain insights into working methods, the time needed for each carving and medieval building practices.

Articles and books by John James on medieval art and architecture 1972 to 2015

The analysis shows that 61 masons worked on the extant capitals on 32 piers. Some were carved by ... more The analysis shows that 61 masons worked on the extant capitals on 32 piers. Some were carved by specialists brought in for the purpose and some by the masons already on site. Many were finished with great delicacy, while a few are relatively simple, even crude.

The tenth in the Master Carvers Series. Victoire has a distinctive style and template and at St-L... more The tenth in the Master Carvers Series. Victoire has a distinctive style and template and at St-Loup was a leading craftsman in the creation of the first Maiwestas Domini portals. He was active between 1100 and the 1140s in northern France, illustrated. In particular he worked on the sculptural programs of Saint-Loup and Saint-Denis. This has been incorporated into www,creationofgothic.org.

The ninth in the Master Carvers Series. The Facet Master has a distinctive style and template. He... more The ninth in the Master Carvers Series. The Facet Master has a distinctive style and template. He was active between late 1080s and the 1120s in northern France, illustrated. His manner is found in many important buildings of the period. This has been incorporated into www,creationofgothic.org.

The eighth in the Master Carvers Series. The Comet Master uses a simplified comet in his designs ... more The eighth in the Master Carvers Series. The Comet Master uses a simplified comet in his designs and template. He was active between the 1070s and the 1110 in northern France, illustrated. This has been incorporated into www,creationofgothic.org.

The seventh in the Master Carvers Series. Felix has a distinctive style and template. He was acti... more The seventh in the Master Carvers Series. Felix has a distinctive style and template. He was active between 1100 and the 1140s in northern France, illustrated. In particular he worked on the sculptural programs of Bourges, Saint-Denis and Chartres. This has been incorporated into www,creationofgothic.org.

The sixth in the Master Carvers Series. He works to a distinctive style and template. He was acti... more The sixth in the Master Carvers Series. He works to a distinctive style and template. He was active between 1100 and the 1140s in northern France, illustrated. In particular he worked in St-Martin-des-Champs. This has been incorporated into www,creationofgothic.org.

The fifth in the Master Carvers Series. He shows a ,ost distinctive style and template. He was ac... more The fifth in the Master Carvers Series. He shows a ,ost distinctive style and template. He was active between the 1120s and the 1160s in northern France, illustrated. In particular he worked in Notre-Dame in Etampes, Saint-Denis and the Rpoyal Portal at Chartres. This has been incorporated into www,creationofgothic.org.

The fourth in the Master Carvers Series. GrippleSon shows a distinctive style and template. He wa... more The fourth in the Master Carvers Series. GrippleSon shows a distinctive style and template. He was active between 1150 and the 1170s in northern France, illustrated. In particular he worked in Senlis and Gournay-en-Brie. This has been incorporated into www,creationofgothic.org.

Template Makers of the Paris Basin, 1989

Medieval studies rests on assumptions that have skewed our vision and analysis of the period. The... more Medieval studies rests on assumptions that have skewed our vision and analysis of the period. These memes are sell over a hundred years old, yet they still coral our perspective.

The seven-ton lintel broke while being erected. Around 1139 in Campaign-14 the limestone lintel o... more The seven-ton lintel broke while being erected. Around 1139 in Campaign-14 the limestone lintel over the central portal of Chartres cathedral broke into three pieces. While the bits were still held by cranes and scaffolding, the extra tonnage of the five stones of the Maestas Domini tympanum was loaded on top. The dimensions tell the story and how the masons solved the problems that came from the breakage.

The World of Villard de Honnecourt, 2022

Fatty "Mortar" meant that campaigns were small; the lack of "Measure" meant that information coul... more Fatty "Mortar" meant that campaigns were small; the lack of "Measure" meant that information could not be passed from one master to another and that change (both in detail and in essence) was inevitable; that only "Geometry" enabled masters to control the works; that the "Canon" enormously simplified and unified the design process and that in "Jobbing and subcontracting" the detailed work could be parceled out to small groups with, on large jobs, an "Executive" to see to management. Taken together they show that any building could have been constructed without a permanent master, and therefore the term "architect" is inappropriate.