M. ANTONI J. J UCERLER - Profile on Academia.edu (original) (raw)

Videos by M. ANTONI J. J UCERLER

Working together with talented young film makers, Laura and Dakin Chamberlain of Direct Light Stu... more Working together with talented young film makers, Laura and Dakin Chamberlain of Direct Light Studios in Sacramento, California, I produced this documentary. Filming took place in Midland, Ontario at the Martyrs' Shrine and St.Marie-among-the-Hurons historical site, as well as in Montréal and Québec City. The documentary compares and connects the stories of faith, which often led to martyrdom, in New France with those of China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam. Many of the speakers gathered in Midland, Ontario for an international conference in October 2018, organized by the Ricci Institute for Chinese-Western Cultural History at the University of San Francisco and co-hosted by the Martyrs' Shrine.

25 views

Papers by M. ANTONI J. J UCERLER

The Jesuit enterprise in sixteenth-and seventeenth-century Japan

The Cambridge Companion to the Jesuits

The story of the Jesuit mission in Japan cannot be told without reference to earlier events in In... more The story of the Jesuit mission in Japan cannot be told without reference to earlier events in India, which was an important center of Christian missionary activity from the beginning of the sixteenth century. The exploratory journeys of Vasco da Gama (1469-1524) along the Indian coast in 1498 culminated in the conquest of Goa in 1510 for the Portuguese crown by Affonso de Albuquerque (1453-1515). The fate of the Indian missionary enterprise is inextricably linked to that of Japan fromthe time of Francis Xavier (1506-52), who first arrived in India on 6 May 1542 as papal legate and nuncio. Xavier had been sent to India by Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556) at the request of Pope Paul III (1468-1549) and undertook the long journey from Lisbon via Mozambique with King John III (1502-57) of Portugal as his patron. The Jesuits, however, were not the first religious order to set foot in India or in Goa under the Portuguese. They were preceded by the Franciscans, who arrived in India in 1500, and the Dominicans, who came in 1503. The Augustinians, on the other hand, began their missionary activities in India only in 1572. Since the final decades of the fifteenth century, Spain and Portugal had become rivals inmaritime exploration and conquest. As a result of various arguments over sovereignty, arbitration was left to the papacy. Pope Alexander VI (1431-1503) stepped in to mediate in 1481 and again in 1493.

Choice Reviews Online, 2015

How was the Society of Jesus governed outside Europe, particularly in regions like Asia, whose di... more How was the Society of Jesus governed outside Europe, particularly in regions like Asia, whose distance severely limited fluid communication with Rome? This is the question

Gómez versus Sánchez

Oxford University Press eBooks, Jun 13, 2022

Chapter 7 discusses two different interpretations of the ius praedicandi Evangelium, which was a ... more Chapter 7 discusses two different interpretations of the ius praedicandi Evangelium, which was a key part of the ‘Law of Nations’ espoused by the School of Salamanca. Sánchez, who proposed entering China with soldiers, did not exclude the possibility of forcible conversions. Gomez, however, argues in his theological compendium that the power of preachers comes from the ‘Word of God’ and not the ‘force of arms’. He bases his opinion on proof texts from scripture, early medieval canon law, and Thomas Aquinas. He also cites Domingo de Soto’s On Justice and Law to define the parameters of a ‘just war’. Sánchez’s interventionist approach forced a global debate on what it meant ‘to preach the Gospel to the whole world’ (Mark 16:15); whether one could ‘compel’ non-Christians ‘to enter’ the Church (Luke 14:23); whether Christians could judge pagans (1 Corinthians 5:12); and how this applied to East Asia.

Japanese Cases of Conscience

Oxford University Press eBooks, Jun 13, 2022

Chapter 2 introduces a number of Japanese ‘cases of conscience’ that specifically deal with how J... more Chapter 2 introduces a number of Japanese ‘cases of conscience’ that specifically deal with how Japanese Christians are to behave when asked or required by their superiors to perform acts that might have the semblance of idolatry. Gómez lists a number of concrete scenarios that Japanese might face, including the making of graven images, the building of temples or shrines, and performance of various traditional Buddhist and Shinto rituals, as well as participation in their festivals. The Jesuits introduced general principles to guide Christians on what they could and could not do. They reiterated the importance of a maintaining a proper disposition or ‘intention’ (kokoro-ate) and avoiding the scandal of apostasy or any appearance thereof. They also discuss how to act in times of persecution and under duress. It may sometimes be permissible ‘to equivocate’, that is, not to reveal one’s Christian identity, a theme included in their treatises on martyrdom.

Japanese Reactions to Christian ‘Reason of State’

Oxford University Press eBooks, Jun 13, 2022

Chapter 10 looks at how the Japanese reacted to the missionaries following the unification of Jap... more Chapter 10 looks at how the Japanese reacted to the missionaries following the unification of Japan and the establishment of the Edo shogunate. Tokugawa Ieyasu pressured Spain to begin trade with Japan via Mexico. But the Spaniards remained wary of the Japanese in the aftermath of the 1597 martyrdoms at Nagasaki and the shogunate’s refusal to accept missionaries on the grounds of ideological and religious incompatibility. Sebastian Vizcaino’s delegation from Mexico arrived in 1611. His request to survey the Japanese coast would be subsequently interpreted as a proof of hostile intent. A corruption scandal that led to the execution of the Christian daimyo Arima Harunobu, in 1612, together with a number of alleged conspiracies and plots to undermine the shogunate with the aid of foreign troops, seemed to confirm Japanese suspicions. These were seized upon by the English and the Dutch in Japan to accuse the Jesuits of treasonous intent.

Jesuit Casuistry

Oxford University Press eBooks, Jun 13, 2022

Chapter 3 explores how casuistry developed in Europe and was adapted in Japan. It explores the pa... more Chapter 3 explores how casuistry developed in Europe and was adapted in Japan. It explores the particular interpretation of Thomas Aquinas’s moral theology by Jesuits such as Gabriel Vázquez and Francisco Rodrigues. As the Ratio studiorum, the blueprint for Jesuit education was being revised, a debate ensued as to how strictly the Society’s members had to adhere to Aquinas’s teachings. Moral probabilism, reflected in the work of the Dominicans Domingo de Soto and Bartolomé de Medina, had a major impact on these debates. The Society opted for flexibility, which was reflected in Gomez’s casuistry for Japan. The compendium discusses the different types of ‘law’ that govern Christian life. Valignano notes the need for caution in promulgating any prescriptive, namely ‘positive’ laws, in Japan. Making the faith accessible required ‘re-inventing’ Christianity, that is, translating and transmitting it to a different cultural milieu and finding new ways to explain Catholic orthodoxy and orthopraxis.

The Cross, the Sword, and ‘Just War’

Oxford University Press eBooks, Jun 13, 2022

Chapter 6 explores further the rationale behind Sánchez’s enterprise, while recalling earlier dis... more Chapter 6 explores further the rationale behind Sánchez’s enterprise, while recalling earlier discussions on whether Spain should invade China. While Sánchez ultimately succeeded in presenting his proposal to the king, it coincided with the defeat of the Spanish Armada, effectively putting an end to any further discussions. Sánchez appealed to the School of Salamanca’s early formulations of the ‘law of nations’ and the ‘law of war’, spearheaded by the Dominican Francisco de Vitoria, to justify his ideas. The universality of ‘rights’ as well as ‘legitimate’ and ‘illegitimate titles’ to wage ‘just war’ were at the heart of the argument, together with Roman interpretations of papal power, defined in terms of a ‘universal monarchy’. Whether impediments to peaceful preaching could be forcibly removed, and what constituted ‘injuries’ that called for military intervention were discussed in Jose de Acosta’s rebuttal of Sánchez’s memorials to the court. Several popes would support Sánchez nonetheless.

The Mechanics of Jesuit Obedience

Oxford University Press eBooks, Jun 13, 2022

Chapter 9 explores how the Jesuits reacted to Hideyoshi’s decree, as they sought to navigate the ... more Chapter 9 explores how the Jesuits reacted to Hideyoshi’s decree, as they sought to navigate the realities of Japan’s Warring States. They held several consultations between 1589 and 1592 to come up with concrete policies that all missionaries were to follow. One proposal was to send the Portuguese Jesuit Melchior de Mora to Spain to petition for military reinforcements, akin to what Sanchez had advocated for China. Valignano disagreed and sent the arms and munitions previously stockpiled by Coelho back to Macau. The problem of how to advise Christian lords in matter of war and to provide aid to local Christian communities remained a moral challenge. In Rome, the Jesuits enacted internal rules forbidding their members from becoming involved in politics, but they gave limited dispensations for Japan. Thereupon, Pedro de la Cruz proposed the establishment of a Japanese ‘Christian Republic’ or civil protectorate with the aid of Spanish troops.

Alonso Sánchez and his ‘Empresa de China’

Oxford University Press eBooks, Jun 13, 2022

Chapter 5 introduces Alonso Sánchez, a Spanish Jesuit in the Philippines who advocated for armed ... more Chapter 5 introduces Alonso Sánchez, a Spanish Jesuit in the Philippines who advocated for armed intervention to force the Chinese to accept foreign missionaries. He was convinced that ‘peaceful preaching’ was not possible. His ‘Chinese enterprise’ found support from the secular and ecclesiastical authorities in the Philippines, who found themselves in dire economic straits. Elected to represent them at court, Sánchez’s proposal elicited a veritable storm of opposition from both Alessandro Valignano and Antonio de Mendoza, superior of the Jesuits in Mexico. Valignano feared possible repercussions on the Japanese mission. As a result, the Jesuit General, Claudio Acquaviva, appointed the Jesuit missionary in Peru, José de Acosta, to accompany Sánchez from New Spain to Europe and to prevent him from speaking to Philip II about conquest. The Dominicans in Spain also denounced him, even though the bishop of Manila, Domingo de Salazar, had initially backed Sánchez’s plans for ‘imperial evangelism’.

The Samurai and the Cross

Oxford University Press eBooks, Jun 13, 2022

This book explores the encounter of Christianity and premodern Japan in the wider context of glob... more This book explores the encounter of Christianity and premodern Japan in the wider context of global history. The first part examines how the Jesuit missionaries sought new ways to communicate their faith in an unfamiliar linguistic, cultural, and religious environment. Their aim was to ‘re-invent’ Christianity in the context of samurai Japan. They developed an original ‘moral casuistry’ or ‘cases of conscience’ that responded to the specific dilemmas faced by Japanese Christians. The second part situates the European missionary ‘enterprise’ in East Asia within multiple political contexts. China and Japan resisted the presence both of foreigners and their beliefs. The Spanish Jesuit Alonso Sánchez argued for military intervention in China to guarantee the freedom to preach. This provoked a fierce debate in Europe, South America, and East Asia. The principles of ‘just war’ and the ‘law of nations’ formulated by the School of Salamanca were employed to argue both for and against compelling the Chinese to accept the missionaries. The third part turns back to Japan, where the Jesuits were facing persecution in the midst of civil war. They debated whether they could intervene in military conflicts by providing advice and arms to Japanese Christian lords to protect local communities. Some even advocated for the establishment of a ‘Christian republic’ or civil protectorate. In 1614 the shogunate prohibited Christianity amidst rumours of foreign plots to conquer Japan. But more than the fear of armed invasions, it was the ideological threat—or ‘spiritual conquest’—that the Edo shogunate feared the most.

Aristotle and Aquinas Come to Japan

Oxford University Press eBooks, Jun 13, 2022

Chapter 1 introduces the compendium of theology, philosophy, and astronomy composed by Pedro Góme... more Chapter 1 introduces the compendium of theology, philosophy, and astronomy composed by Pedro Gómez in the 1590s to prepare Japanese and European missionaries for their pastoral work in Japan. It complemented the studia humanitatis curriculum at the Jesuit College. An abridged adaptation in Latin of the Roman Catechism of the Council of Trent (1566), this Japanese translation by Pedro Ramón, Paulo Yōhō Ken, and Vicente Hōin reveals how the Jesuits adapted traditional teachings to the realities of samurai Japan. They relied on the Coimbra commentaries on Aristotle (the cursus conimbricensis), compiled by Pedro da Fonseca and his fellow Jesuits, to provide them with a framework. This was then recast into Japanese and taught by Pedro Morejón and others. Special emphasis was placed on defining the individual as an authentic spiritual being capable of reaching out for the infinite, in contrast with the pantheistic vision of the world prevalent in Japan.

The End of the Missionary ‘Enterprise’

Oxford University Press eBooks, Jun 13, 2022

Chapter 11 discusses the first anti-Christian decree of 1612, which was followed in 1614 with a g... more Chapter 11 discusses the first anti-Christian decree of 1612, which was followed in 1614 with a general prohibition. The apparent disregard for suffering and death displayed by Christians at their executions was taken as further proof of insubordination to legitimate authority and the spreading of an ‘evil teaching’. Spain’s lack of enthusiasm for trade with the shogunate prompted the Japanese to suspect that Spain was actually plotting to invade Japan in the same way it had conquered the Americas and the Philippines. The Jesuit provincial superior, Mateus de Couros, was a keen observer of these developments and compiled a detailed report in 1621, explaining the ‘principle causes’ for the ongoing persecution, including the fear of civil and religious disturbances. The Spanish Jesuit Pedro Morejón further recounts how the presence of Japanese Christian troops fighting in support of Toyotomi Hideyori at the battle of Osaka in 1614–1615 enraged Tokugawa Ieyasu and Hidetada.

‘Temporal’ or ‘Spiritual Conquest’?

Oxford University Press eBooks, Jun 13, 2022

Chapter 12 discusses in depth the ideological framework that the Japanese adopted to explain why ... more Chapter 12 discusses in depth the ideological framework that the Japanese adopted to explain why Christianity was a ‘pernicious doctrine’. The Japanese theory of the unity and interdependence of the ‘Buddhist Law’ and ‘Imperial Law’, which was proclaimed, among others, by Saichō (767–822), the founder of Tendai Buddhism, left no room for foreign doctrines. ‘Buddhist law’, according to the belief in honji suijaku and shinbutsu shūgō, incorporated both Buddhas and Shinto deities. The Japanese apostate and former Jesuit Fabian Fukansai would thereby argue that Christian teachings fundamentally undermined the very fabric of Japanese culture, religiosity, and the state. As Arai Hakuseki subsequently stated, the subjugation of Japan was not so much an issue of foreign invasions but the deleterious effects of an alien belief system on the body politic. This would result in what the Europeans referred to positively as ‘spiritual conquest’, but what the Japanese feared would destroy the essential spiritual unity of the nation.

The Jesuit enterprise in sixteenth-and seventeenth-century Japan

Cambridge University Press eBooks, Mar 20, 2008

The story of the Jesuit mission in Japan cannot be told without reference to earlier events in In... more The story of the Jesuit mission in Japan cannot be told without reference to earlier events in India, which was an important center of Christian missionary activity from the beginning of the sixteenth century. The exploratory journeys of Vasco da Gama (1469-1524) along the Indian coast in 1498 culminated in the conquest of Goa in 1510 for the Portuguese crown by Affonso de Albuquerque (1453-1515). The fate of the Indian missionary enterprise is inextricably linked to that of Japan fromthe time of Francis Xavier (1506-52), who first arrived in India on 6 May 1542 as papal legate and nuncio. Xavier had been sent to India by Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556) at the request of Pope Paul III (1468-1549) and undertook the long journey from Lisbon via Mozambique with King John III (1502-57) of Portugal as his patron. The Jesuits, however, were not the first religious order to set foot in India or in Goa under the Portuguese. They were preceded by the Franciscans, who arrived in India in 1500, and the Dominicans, who came in 1503. The Augustinians, on the other hand, began their missionary activities in India only in 1572. Since the final decades of the fifteenth century, Spain and Portugal had become rivals inmaritime exploration and conquest. As a result of various arguments over sovereignty, arbitration was left to the papacy. Pope Alexander VI (1431-1503) stepped in to mediate in 1481 and again in 1493.

Theological Studies, Sep 1, 2015

The Politics of Accommodation

Oxford University Press eBooks, Jun 13, 2022

Chapter 4 introduces the concept of ‘cultural accommodation’ and explores how the missionaries de... more Chapter 4 introduces the concept of ‘cultural accommodation’ and explores how the missionaries defined it in terms of religion and politics. Both the Jesuits themselves and members of other religious orders often disagreed on the extent to which this was possible or even desirable. Jesuits judged the need for adaptation depending on how they judged the ‘civility’ of a particular people. Hence, they endeavoured to describe the innate virtues and vices of the Japanese, which would determine their strategies of evangelization. This came in the wake of the famous Las-Casas–Sepúlveda debates over ‘natural slavery’ and whether the American Indios possessed truly human souls. The creation of civilizational and racial hierarchies also influenced how the Spanish and Portuguese conceived their missionary, merchant, and colonial ‘enterprises’ in East Asia. This inevitably included questions about what to do when faced with hostility and suspicion on the part of the Japanese or Chinese.

Jesuit Debates on Japanese ‘Reason of State’

Oxford University Press eBooks, Jun 13, 2022

Chapter 8 turns to the debates among the Jesuits in Japan on how to handle the political situatio... more Chapter 8 turns to the debates among the Jesuits in Japan on how to handle the political situation in which they found themselves. Valignano’s acceptance of the civil administration of Nagasaki in 1580 from Ōmura Sumitada posed great risks to the Society, both from within the Church and from without. As canon law did not permit priests to engage directly in criminal justice, Valignano had to draw up rules for samurai officials (yakunin) to act on their behalf. For foreigners to be in charge of a Japanese city invited the hostility of local warlords. They faced the dilemma whether missionaries could become advisors in matters of war, and whether they should have a fortress to take refuge in. Some argued it was more appropriate to die as martyrs. Supported by Sánchez, Gaspar Coelho opted instead for engagement. This aroused suspicion in Hideyoshi, who issued a decree expelling the Jesuits in 1587.

Journal of The Economic and Social History of The Orient, 2013

Christianity and cultures : Japan & China in comparison, 1543-1644

Working together with talented young film makers, Laura and Dakin Chamberlain of Direct Light Stu... more Working together with talented young film makers, Laura and Dakin Chamberlain of Direct Light Studios in Sacramento, California, I produced this documentary. Filming took place in Midland, Ontario at the Martyrs' Shrine and St.Marie-among-the-Hurons historical site, as well as in Montréal and Québec City. The documentary compares and connects the stories of faith, which often led to martyrdom, in New France with those of China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam. Many of the speakers gathered in Midland, Ontario for an international conference in October 2018, organized by the Ricci Institute for Chinese-Western Cultural History at the University of San Francisco and co-hosted by the Martyrs' Shrine.

25 views

The Jesuit enterprise in sixteenth-and seventeenth-century Japan

The Cambridge Companion to the Jesuits

The story of the Jesuit mission in Japan cannot be told without reference to earlier events in In... more The story of the Jesuit mission in Japan cannot be told without reference to earlier events in India, which was an important center of Christian missionary activity from the beginning of the sixteenth century. The exploratory journeys of Vasco da Gama (1469-1524) along the Indian coast in 1498 culminated in the conquest of Goa in 1510 for the Portuguese crown by Affonso de Albuquerque (1453-1515). The fate of the Indian missionary enterprise is inextricably linked to that of Japan fromthe time of Francis Xavier (1506-52), who first arrived in India on 6 May 1542 as papal legate and nuncio. Xavier had been sent to India by Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556) at the request of Pope Paul III (1468-1549) and undertook the long journey from Lisbon via Mozambique with King John III (1502-57) of Portugal as his patron. The Jesuits, however, were not the first religious order to set foot in India or in Goa under the Portuguese. They were preceded by the Franciscans, who arrived in India in 1500, and the Dominicans, who came in 1503. The Augustinians, on the other hand, began their missionary activities in India only in 1572. Since the final decades of the fifteenth century, Spain and Portugal had become rivals inmaritime exploration and conquest. As a result of various arguments over sovereignty, arbitration was left to the papacy. Pope Alexander VI (1431-1503) stepped in to mediate in 1481 and again in 1493.

Choice Reviews Online, 2015

How was the Society of Jesus governed outside Europe, particularly in regions like Asia, whose di... more How was the Society of Jesus governed outside Europe, particularly in regions like Asia, whose distance severely limited fluid communication with Rome? This is the question

Gómez versus Sánchez

Oxford University Press eBooks, Jun 13, 2022

Chapter 7 discusses two different interpretations of the ius praedicandi Evangelium, which was a ... more Chapter 7 discusses two different interpretations of the ius praedicandi Evangelium, which was a key part of the ‘Law of Nations’ espoused by the School of Salamanca. Sánchez, who proposed entering China with soldiers, did not exclude the possibility of forcible conversions. Gomez, however, argues in his theological compendium that the power of preachers comes from the ‘Word of God’ and not the ‘force of arms’. He bases his opinion on proof texts from scripture, early medieval canon law, and Thomas Aquinas. He also cites Domingo de Soto’s On Justice and Law to define the parameters of a ‘just war’. Sánchez’s interventionist approach forced a global debate on what it meant ‘to preach the Gospel to the whole world’ (Mark 16:15); whether one could ‘compel’ non-Christians ‘to enter’ the Church (Luke 14:23); whether Christians could judge pagans (1 Corinthians 5:12); and how this applied to East Asia.

Japanese Cases of Conscience

Oxford University Press eBooks, Jun 13, 2022

Chapter 2 introduces a number of Japanese ‘cases of conscience’ that specifically deal with how J... more Chapter 2 introduces a number of Japanese ‘cases of conscience’ that specifically deal with how Japanese Christians are to behave when asked or required by their superiors to perform acts that might have the semblance of idolatry. Gómez lists a number of concrete scenarios that Japanese might face, including the making of graven images, the building of temples or shrines, and performance of various traditional Buddhist and Shinto rituals, as well as participation in their festivals. The Jesuits introduced general principles to guide Christians on what they could and could not do. They reiterated the importance of a maintaining a proper disposition or ‘intention’ (kokoro-ate) and avoiding the scandal of apostasy or any appearance thereof. They also discuss how to act in times of persecution and under duress. It may sometimes be permissible ‘to equivocate’, that is, not to reveal one’s Christian identity, a theme included in their treatises on martyrdom.

Japanese Reactions to Christian ‘Reason of State’

Oxford University Press eBooks, Jun 13, 2022

Chapter 10 looks at how the Japanese reacted to the missionaries following the unification of Jap... more Chapter 10 looks at how the Japanese reacted to the missionaries following the unification of Japan and the establishment of the Edo shogunate. Tokugawa Ieyasu pressured Spain to begin trade with Japan via Mexico. But the Spaniards remained wary of the Japanese in the aftermath of the 1597 martyrdoms at Nagasaki and the shogunate’s refusal to accept missionaries on the grounds of ideological and religious incompatibility. Sebastian Vizcaino’s delegation from Mexico arrived in 1611. His request to survey the Japanese coast would be subsequently interpreted as a proof of hostile intent. A corruption scandal that led to the execution of the Christian daimyo Arima Harunobu, in 1612, together with a number of alleged conspiracies and plots to undermine the shogunate with the aid of foreign troops, seemed to confirm Japanese suspicions. These were seized upon by the English and the Dutch in Japan to accuse the Jesuits of treasonous intent.

Jesuit Casuistry

Oxford University Press eBooks, Jun 13, 2022

Chapter 3 explores how casuistry developed in Europe and was adapted in Japan. It explores the pa... more Chapter 3 explores how casuistry developed in Europe and was adapted in Japan. It explores the particular interpretation of Thomas Aquinas’s moral theology by Jesuits such as Gabriel Vázquez and Francisco Rodrigues. As the Ratio studiorum, the blueprint for Jesuit education was being revised, a debate ensued as to how strictly the Society’s members had to adhere to Aquinas’s teachings. Moral probabilism, reflected in the work of the Dominicans Domingo de Soto and Bartolomé de Medina, had a major impact on these debates. The Society opted for flexibility, which was reflected in Gomez’s casuistry for Japan. The compendium discusses the different types of ‘law’ that govern Christian life. Valignano notes the need for caution in promulgating any prescriptive, namely ‘positive’ laws, in Japan. Making the faith accessible required ‘re-inventing’ Christianity, that is, translating and transmitting it to a different cultural milieu and finding new ways to explain Catholic orthodoxy and orthopraxis.

The Cross, the Sword, and ‘Just War’

Oxford University Press eBooks, Jun 13, 2022

Chapter 6 explores further the rationale behind Sánchez’s enterprise, while recalling earlier dis... more Chapter 6 explores further the rationale behind Sánchez’s enterprise, while recalling earlier discussions on whether Spain should invade China. While Sánchez ultimately succeeded in presenting his proposal to the king, it coincided with the defeat of the Spanish Armada, effectively putting an end to any further discussions. Sánchez appealed to the School of Salamanca’s early formulations of the ‘law of nations’ and the ‘law of war’, spearheaded by the Dominican Francisco de Vitoria, to justify his ideas. The universality of ‘rights’ as well as ‘legitimate’ and ‘illegitimate titles’ to wage ‘just war’ were at the heart of the argument, together with Roman interpretations of papal power, defined in terms of a ‘universal monarchy’. Whether impediments to peaceful preaching could be forcibly removed, and what constituted ‘injuries’ that called for military intervention were discussed in Jose de Acosta’s rebuttal of Sánchez’s memorials to the court. Several popes would support Sánchez nonetheless.

The Mechanics of Jesuit Obedience

Oxford University Press eBooks, Jun 13, 2022

Chapter 9 explores how the Jesuits reacted to Hideyoshi’s decree, as they sought to navigate the ... more Chapter 9 explores how the Jesuits reacted to Hideyoshi’s decree, as they sought to navigate the realities of Japan’s Warring States. They held several consultations between 1589 and 1592 to come up with concrete policies that all missionaries were to follow. One proposal was to send the Portuguese Jesuit Melchior de Mora to Spain to petition for military reinforcements, akin to what Sanchez had advocated for China. Valignano disagreed and sent the arms and munitions previously stockpiled by Coelho back to Macau. The problem of how to advise Christian lords in matter of war and to provide aid to local Christian communities remained a moral challenge. In Rome, the Jesuits enacted internal rules forbidding their members from becoming involved in politics, but they gave limited dispensations for Japan. Thereupon, Pedro de la Cruz proposed the establishment of a Japanese ‘Christian Republic’ or civil protectorate with the aid of Spanish troops.

Alonso Sánchez and his ‘Empresa de China’

Oxford University Press eBooks, Jun 13, 2022

Chapter 5 introduces Alonso Sánchez, a Spanish Jesuit in the Philippines who advocated for armed ... more Chapter 5 introduces Alonso Sánchez, a Spanish Jesuit in the Philippines who advocated for armed intervention to force the Chinese to accept foreign missionaries. He was convinced that ‘peaceful preaching’ was not possible. His ‘Chinese enterprise’ found support from the secular and ecclesiastical authorities in the Philippines, who found themselves in dire economic straits. Elected to represent them at court, Sánchez’s proposal elicited a veritable storm of opposition from both Alessandro Valignano and Antonio de Mendoza, superior of the Jesuits in Mexico. Valignano feared possible repercussions on the Japanese mission. As a result, the Jesuit General, Claudio Acquaviva, appointed the Jesuit missionary in Peru, José de Acosta, to accompany Sánchez from New Spain to Europe and to prevent him from speaking to Philip II about conquest. The Dominicans in Spain also denounced him, even though the bishop of Manila, Domingo de Salazar, had initially backed Sánchez’s plans for ‘imperial evangelism’.

The Samurai and the Cross

Oxford University Press eBooks, Jun 13, 2022

This book explores the encounter of Christianity and premodern Japan in the wider context of glob... more This book explores the encounter of Christianity and premodern Japan in the wider context of global history. The first part examines how the Jesuit missionaries sought new ways to communicate their faith in an unfamiliar linguistic, cultural, and religious environment. Their aim was to ‘re-invent’ Christianity in the context of samurai Japan. They developed an original ‘moral casuistry’ or ‘cases of conscience’ that responded to the specific dilemmas faced by Japanese Christians. The second part situates the European missionary ‘enterprise’ in East Asia within multiple political contexts. China and Japan resisted the presence both of foreigners and their beliefs. The Spanish Jesuit Alonso Sánchez argued for military intervention in China to guarantee the freedom to preach. This provoked a fierce debate in Europe, South America, and East Asia. The principles of ‘just war’ and the ‘law of nations’ formulated by the School of Salamanca were employed to argue both for and against compelling the Chinese to accept the missionaries. The third part turns back to Japan, where the Jesuits were facing persecution in the midst of civil war. They debated whether they could intervene in military conflicts by providing advice and arms to Japanese Christian lords to protect local communities. Some even advocated for the establishment of a ‘Christian republic’ or civil protectorate. In 1614 the shogunate prohibited Christianity amidst rumours of foreign plots to conquer Japan. But more than the fear of armed invasions, it was the ideological threat—or ‘spiritual conquest’—that the Edo shogunate feared the most.

Aristotle and Aquinas Come to Japan

Oxford University Press eBooks, Jun 13, 2022

Chapter 1 introduces the compendium of theology, philosophy, and astronomy composed by Pedro Góme... more Chapter 1 introduces the compendium of theology, philosophy, and astronomy composed by Pedro Gómez in the 1590s to prepare Japanese and European missionaries for their pastoral work in Japan. It complemented the studia humanitatis curriculum at the Jesuit College. An abridged adaptation in Latin of the Roman Catechism of the Council of Trent (1566), this Japanese translation by Pedro Ramón, Paulo Yōhō Ken, and Vicente Hōin reveals how the Jesuits adapted traditional teachings to the realities of samurai Japan. They relied on the Coimbra commentaries on Aristotle (the cursus conimbricensis), compiled by Pedro da Fonseca and his fellow Jesuits, to provide them with a framework. This was then recast into Japanese and taught by Pedro Morejón and others. Special emphasis was placed on defining the individual as an authentic spiritual being capable of reaching out for the infinite, in contrast with the pantheistic vision of the world prevalent in Japan.

The End of the Missionary ‘Enterprise’

Oxford University Press eBooks, Jun 13, 2022

Chapter 11 discusses the first anti-Christian decree of 1612, which was followed in 1614 with a g... more Chapter 11 discusses the first anti-Christian decree of 1612, which was followed in 1614 with a general prohibition. The apparent disregard for suffering and death displayed by Christians at their executions was taken as further proof of insubordination to legitimate authority and the spreading of an ‘evil teaching’. Spain’s lack of enthusiasm for trade with the shogunate prompted the Japanese to suspect that Spain was actually plotting to invade Japan in the same way it had conquered the Americas and the Philippines. The Jesuit provincial superior, Mateus de Couros, was a keen observer of these developments and compiled a detailed report in 1621, explaining the ‘principle causes’ for the ongoing persecution, including the fear of civil and religious disturbances. The Spanish Jesuit Pedro Morejón further recounts how the presence of Japanese Christian troops fighting in support of Toyotomi Hideyori at the battle of Osaka in 1614–1615 enraged Tokugawa Ieyasu and Hidetada.

‘Temporal’ or ‘Spiritual Conquest’?

Oxford University Press eBooks, Jun 13, 2022

Chapter 12 discusses in depth the ideological framework that the Japanese adopted to explain why ... more Chapter 12 discusses in depth the ideological framework that the Japanese adopted to explain why Christianity was a ‘pernicious doctrine’. The Japanese theory of the unity and interdependence of the ‘Buddhist Law’ and ‘Imperial Law’, which was proclaimed, among others, by Saichō (767–822), the founder of Tendai Buddhism, left no room for foreign doctrines. ‘Buddhist law’, according to the belief in honji suijaku and shinbutsu shūgō, incorporated both Buddhas and Shinto deities. The Japanese apostate and former Jesuit Fabian Fukansai would thereby argue that Christian teachings fundamentally undermined the very fabric of Japanese culture, religiosity, and the state. As Arai Hakuseki subsequently stated, the subjugation of Japan was not so much an issue of foreign invasions but the deleterious effects of an alien belief system on the body politic. This would result in what the Europeans referred to positively as ‘spiritual conquest’, but what the Japanese feared would destroy the essential spiritual unity of the nation.

The Jesuit enterprise in sixteenth-and seventeenth-century Japan

Cambridge University Press eBooks, Mar 20, 2008

The story of the Jesuit mission in Japan cannot be told without reference to earlier events in In... more The story of the Jesuit mission in Japan cannot be told without reference to earlier events in India, which was an important center of Christian missionary activity from the beginning of the sixteenth century. The exploratory journeys of Vasco da Gama (1469-1524) along the Indian coast in 1498 culminated in the conquest of Goa in 1510 for the Portuguese crown by Affonso de Albuquerque (1453-1515). The fate of the Indian missionary enterprise is inextricably linked to that of Japan fromthe time of Francis Xavier (1506-52), who first arrived in India on 6 May 1542 as papal legate and nuncio. Xavier had been sent to India by Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556) at the request of Pope Paul III (1468-1549) and undertook the long journey from Lisbon via Mozambique with King John III (1502-57) of Portugal as his patron. The Jesuits, however, were not the first religious order to set foot in India or in Goa under the Portuguese. They were preceded by the Franciscans, who arrived in India in 1500, and the Dominicans, who came in 1503. The Augustinians, on the other hand, began their missionary activities in India only in 1572. Since the final decades of the fifteenth century, Spain and Portugal had become rivals inmaritime exploration and conquest. As a result of various arguments over sovereignty, arbitration was left to the papacy. Pope Alexander VI (1431-1503) stepped in to mediate in 1481 and again in 1493.

Theological Studies, Sep 1, 2015

The Politics of Accommodation

Oxford University Press eBooks, Jun 13, 2022

Chapter 4 introduces the concept of ‘cultural accommodation’ and explores how the missionaries de... more Chapter 4 introduces the concept of ‘cultural accommodation’ and explores how the missionaries defined it in terms of religion and politics. Both the Jesuits themselves and members of other religious orders often disagreed on the extent to which this was possible or even desirable. Jesuits judged the need for adaptation depending on how they judged the ‘civility’ of a particular people. Hence, they endeavoured to describe the innate virtues and vices of the Japanese, which would determine their strategies of evangelization. This came in the wake of the famous Las-Casas–Sepúlveda debates over ‘natural slavery’ and whether the American Indios possessed truly human souls. The creation of civilizational and racial hierarchies also influenced how the Spanish and Portuguese conceived their missionary, merchant, and colonial ‘enterprises’ in East Asia. This inevitably included questions about what to do when faced with hostility and suspicion on the part of the Japanese or Chinese.

Jesuit Debates on Japanese ‘Reason of State’

Oxford University Press eBooks, Jun 13, 2022

Chapter 8 turns to the debates among the Jesuits in Japan on how to handle the political situatio... more Chapter 8 turns to the debates among the Jesuits in Japan on how to handle the political situation in which they found themselves. Valignano’s acceptance of the civil administration of Nagasaki in 1580 from Ōmura Sumitada posed great risks to the Society, both from within the Church and from without. As canon law did not permit priests to engage directly in criminal justice, Valignano had to draw up rules for samurai officials (yakunin) to act on their behalf. For foreigners to be in charge of a Japanese city invited the hostility of local warlords. They faced the dilemma whether missionaries could become advisors in matters of war, and whether they should have a fortress to take refuge in. Some argued it was more appropriate to die as martyrs. Supported by Sánchez, Gaspar Coelho opted instead for engagement. This aroused suspicion in Hideyoshi, who issued a decree expelling the Jesuits in 1587.

Journal of The Economic and Social History of The Orient, 2013

Christianity and cultures : Japan & China in comparison, 1543-1644

Alessandro Valignano: man, missionary, and writer

Renaissance Studies, Sep 1, 2003

... In contrast with the 'deficiency' in natural potential to become good Christians am... more ... In contrast with the 'deficiency' in natural potential to become good Christians among the inhabitants of Africa, and the serious limitations he perceived in the peoples of India citra Gangem, the Japanese are placed in a completely different category. ...