Veronica Maglieri | University of Pisa (original) (raw)

Papers by Veronica Maglieri

Human Nature, 2023

Humans are social animals that rely on different ways to interact with each other. The COVID-19 p... more Humans are social animals that rely on different ways to interact with each other. The COVID-19 pandemic strongly changed our communication strategies. Because of the importance of direct contact for our species, we predict that immediately after the forced social isolation, people were more prone to engage in direct rather than in virtual interactions, thus showing a lower mimicry response in the use of smartphones. In a non-longitudinal study, we collected behavioral data under naturalistic contexts and directly compared the data of the mimicry response gathered immediately following the Italian lockdown (May-September 2020) with those gathered one year later (May-October 2021). Contrary to our expectations, the mimicry response in the use of smartphones was higher immediately after the lockdown than a year later. Probably the large use of these devices during the lockdown translated into a greater sensitivity to be affected by others' smartphone manipulation. Indeed, social isolation modified, at least in the short term, the ways we interact with others by making us more prone to engage in "virtual" social interactions. The bright side of the coin unveiled by our findings is that the effect seems to diminish over time. The large behavioral dataset analyzed here (1,608 events; 248 people) also revealed that the mimicry response in the use of smartphones was higher between familiar subjects than between strangers. In this view, mimicry in manipulating smartphones can be considered an example of joint action that fosters behavioral synchrony between individuals that, in the long-term, can translate into the formation of social bonding.

Scientific Reports, 2022

Yawn contagion (YC) is, compared to spontaneous yawning, an evolutionary recent phenomenon probab... more Yawn contagion (YC) is, compared to spontaneous yawning, an evolutionary recent phenomenon probably linked to behavioral synchronization in highly social species that is more likely when it involves familiar subjects. Here, we investigate for the first time in monkeys which factors modulate intra-and interspecific YC. Through an experimental approach, we exposed 17 red-capped mangabeys to video stimuli (Yawn vs Control) depicting familiar/unfamiliar red-capped mangabeys and humans, and unfamiliar hamadryas. We found that mangabeys yawned more often in response to Yawn than Control videos independently from the species depicted, demonstrating both intra-and interspecific YC in the tested species. Moreover, both mangabey and human familiar yawning stimuli evoked a stronger yawning response in the subjects compared to the unfamiliar counterparts. Neither the amount of time spent looking frontally at the screen (probability of stimulus perception) nor the levels of self-directed behaviors (a proxy of anxiety) accounted for the results. In conclusion, we provide the first evidence that in non-human primate familiarity modulates both intra-and inter-specific YC. Stimuli emitted by familiar faces somehow ease the mechanisms underlying YC, and this modulation can also apply to heterospecific subjects when previous shared experiences provide the prerequisites for the development of social bonds.

Article, 2022

Play fighting, the most iconic form of social play, is often punctuated by specific signals, such... more Play fighting, the most iconic form of social play, is often punctuated by specific signals, such as the relaxed open mouth (ROM) display, limiting the risk of misunderstanding between playmates. Although there is general consensus that the ROM of dogs is a ritualized version of play biting, the empirical demonstration of the actual ritualization of ROM has been lacking. We videorecorded and analysed 118 playful sessions involving 24 Czechoslovakian wolfdogs (12 females; 12 males), which is a breed of domestic dog, Canis lupus familiaris, showing wolf-like behavioural traits. By using an integrated approach of different techniques (dog facial action coding system, an unsupervised cluster analysis and the Levenshtein distance), we empirically demonstrate that the ROM is intrinsically different from the play biting action in this breed of dog. Contrary to the play bite, during ROM, the recruitment of muscular action units for each facial display was more consistent, conspicuous and intra- and interindividually stereotyped. Moreover, a sequential analysis revealed that the ROM usually preceded playful offensive patterns, thus underlining the real metacommunicative function of the signal. Finally, by running a linear mixed model, we found that the most balanced sessions were punctuated by the most prolonged performance of ROM, thus revealing the efficiency of the facial signal in maintaining a balanced session. In conclusion, through the processes of formalization, simplification and emphasis, an ordinary precursor behaviour (i.e. play biting) has been taken out of context and transformed into an extraordinary, derived behaviour (i.e. ROM) specifically designed to attract receivers' attention and modulate playful social interactions in dogs.

Human-directed gazing, a keystone in dog–human communication, has been suggested to derive from b... more Human-directed gazing, a keystone in dog–human communication, has been suggested to derive from both domestication and breed selection. The influence of genetic similarity to wolves and selective pressures on human-directed gazing is still under debate. Here, we used the ‘unsolvable task’ to compare Czechoslovakian Wolfdogs (CWDs, a close-to-wolf breed), German Shepherd Dogs (GSDs) and Labrador Retrievers (LRs). In the ‘solvable task’, all dogs learned to obtain the reward; however, differently from GSDs and LRs, CWDs rarely gazed at humans. In the ‘unsolvable task’, CWDs gazed significantly less towards humans compared to LRs but not to GSDs. Although all dogs were similarly motivated to explore the apparatus, CWDs and GSDs spent a larger amount of time in manipulating it compared to LRs. A clear difference emerged in gazing at the experimenter versus owner. CWDs gazed preferentially towards the experimenter (the unfamiliar subject manipulating the food), GSDs towards their owners ...

American Journal of Primatology, 2021

Here we show for the first time that the plasticity in morphology and duration of yawning in Maca... more Here we show for the first time that the plasticity in morphology and duration of
yawning in Macaca tonkeana can be associated with different functional contexts.
Macaca tonkeana is classified as a tolerant macaque species characterized by social
interactions minimally constrained by dominance rank or kinship. Tonkean macaques,
as other egalitarian species, rely on a complex facial communicative system.
We found that the degree of mouth opening (ranging from covered to uncovered
tooth yawns) and the duration of yawning were not strictly dependent. The shortest
uncovered tooth yawns were associated with an intense locomotor/physical activity
and peaked immediately after stressful social events thus indicating an increase in
arousal. In contrast, longer yawns, independently from teeth exposure, were
primarily associated with a relaxed state of the subject. In conclusion, our study
suggests that to explore the potential different functions of yawning, it is necessary
to focus on the variability of its expression both in terms of morphology and
duration, because not all yawns tell the same story.

By gathering data on people during their ordinary daily activities, we tested if looking at, but ... more By gathering data on people during their ordinary daily activities, we tested if looking at, but not manipulating, smartphones led to a mimicry response in the observer. Manipulating and looking at the device (experimental condition), more than its mere manipulation (control condition), was critical to elicit a mimicry response in the observer. Sex, age and relationship quality between the experimenter and the observer had no effect on the smartphone mimicry response that tended to decrease during social meals. Due to the role of food as a tool in increasing social affiliation, it is possible that during communal eating, people engage in other forms of mimicry involving facial expressions and postures rather than the use of objects. Understanding the ethological mechanisms of the use of smartphones at everyday-social scale could unveil the processes at the basis of the widespread/increasing use of these devices at a large scale.

Animal Cognition, 2021

Mirror self-recognition (MSR), investigated in primates and recently in non-primate species, is c... more Mirror self-recognition (MSR), investigated in primates and recently in non-primate species, is considered a measure of self-awareness. Nowadays, the only reliable test for investigating MSR potential skills consists in the untrained response to a visual body mark detected using a reflective surface. Here, we report the first evidence of MSR at group level in horses, by facing the weaknesses of methodology present in a previous pilot study. Fourteen horses were used in a 4-phases mirror test (covered mirror, open mirror, invisible mark, visible colored mark). After engaging in a series of contingency behaviors (looking behind the mirror, peek-a-boo, head and tongue movements), our horses used the mirror surface to guide their movements towards their colored cheeks, thus showing that they can recognize themselves in a mirror. The analysis at the group level, which 'marks' a turning point in the analytical technique of MSR exploration in non-primate species, showed that horses spent a longer time in scratching their faces when marked with the visible mark compared to the non-visible mark. This finding indicates that horses did not see the non-visible mark and that they did not touch their own face guided by the tactile sensation, suggesting the presence of MSR in horses. Although a heated debate on the binary versus gradual-ist model in the MSR interpretation exists, recent empirical pieces of evidence, including ours, indicate that MSR is not an all-or-nothing phenomenon that appeared once in phylogeny and that a convergent evolution mechanism can be at the basis of its presence in phylogenetically distant taxa.

Mirror self-recognition (MSR), investigated in primates and recently in non-primate species, is c... more Mirror self-recognition (MSR), investigated in primates and recently in non-primate species, is considered a measure of self-awareness. Nowadays, the only reliable test for investigating MSR potential skills consists in the untrained response to a visual body mark detected using a reflective surface. Here, we report the first evidence of MSR at group level in horses, by facing the weaknesses of methodology present in a previous pilot study. Fourteen horses were used in a 4-phases mirror test (covered mirror, open mirror, invisible mark, visible colored mark). After engaging in a series of contingency behaviors (looking behind the mirror, peek-a-boo, head and tongue movements), our horses used the mirror surface to guide their movements towards their colored cheeks, thus showing that they can recognize themselves in a mirror. The analysis at the group level, which 'marks' a turning point in the analytical technique of MSR exploration in non-primate species, showed that horses spent a longer time in scratching their faces when marked with the visible mark compared to the non-visible mark. This finding indicates that horses did not see the non-visible mark and that they did not touch their own face guided by the tactile sensation, suggesting the presence of MSR in horses. Although a heated debate on the binary versus gradual-ist model in the MSR interpretation exists, recent empirical pieces of evidence, including ours, indicate that MSR is not an all-or-nothing phenomenon that appeared once in phylogeny and that a convergent evolution mechanism can be at the basis of its presence in phylogenetically distant taxa.

Play is uniformly distributed throughout the animal kingdom and represents a window on cognitive ... more Play is uniformly distributed throughout the animal kingdom and represents a window on cognitive and communicative abilities of a species 1 . While intraspecific play is receiving increasing attention by scholars 1-3 , interspecific play and its communication are largely neglected. We selected dog-horse play to understand how these two domestic species can manage their sessions by peculiar communicative signals despite their different communicative repertoire.

Human-directed gazing, a keystone in dog–human communication, has been suggested to derive from b... more Human-directed gazing, a keystone in dog–human communication, has been suggested to derive from both domestication and breed selection. The influence of genetic similarity to wolves and selective pressures on human-directed gazing is still under debate. Here, we used the unsolvable task’ to compare Czechoslovakian Wolfdogs (CWDs, a close-to-wolf breed), German Shepherd Dogs (GSDs) and Labrador Retrievers (LRs). In the ‘solvable task’, all dogs learned to obtain the reward; however, differently from GSDs and LRs, CWDs rarely gazed at humans. In the ‘unsolvable task’, CWDs gazed significantly less towards humans compared to LRs but not to GSDs. Although all dogs were similarly motivated to explore the apparatus, CWDs and GSDs spent a larger amount of time in manipulating it compared to LRs. A clear difference
emerged in gazing at the experimenter versus owner. CWDs gazed preferentially towards the experimenter (the unfamiliar subject manipulating the food), GSDs towards their owners and LRs gazed at humans independently from their level of familiarity. In conclusion, it emerges that the artificial selection operated on CWDs produced a breed more similar to ancient breeds (more wolf-like due to a less-intense artificial selection) and not very human-oriented. The next step is to clarify GSDs’ behaviour and better understand the genetic role of this breed in shaping CWDs’ heterospecific behaviour.

Maglieri V., Prato-Previde E., Tommasi E., Palagi E., 2019

Human-directed gazing, a keystone in dog-human communication, has been suggested to derive from b... more Human-directed gazing, a keystone in dog-human communication, has been suggested to derive from both domestication and breed selection. The influence of genetic similarity to wolves and selective pressures on human-directed gazing is still under debate. Here, we used the ‘unsolvable task’ to compare Czechoslovakian Wolfdogs (CWDs, a close-to-wolf breed), German Shepherd Dogs (GSDs) and Labrador Retrievers (LRs). In the ‘solvable task’ all dogs learned to obtain the reward; however, differently from GSDs and LRs, CWDs rarely gazed at humans. In the ‘unsolvable task’ CWDs gazed significantly less towards humans compared to LRs but not to GSDs. Although all dogs were similarly motivated to explore the apparatus, CWDs and GSDs spent a larger amount of time in manipulating it compared to LRs. A clear difference emerged in gazing at the experimenter vs owner. CWDs gazed preferentially towards the experimenter (the unfamiliar subject manipulating the food), GSDs towards their owners and LRs gazed at humans independently from their level of familiarity. In conclusion, it emerges that the artificial selection operated on CWDs produced a breed more similar to ancient breeds (more wolf-like due to a less intense artificial selection) and not very human-oriented. The next step is to clarify GSDs’ behaviour and better understand the genetic role of this breed in shaping CWDs’ hetero-specific behaviour.

Drafts by Veronica Maglieri

Current Zoology, 2022

Dogs engage in play behavior at every age and the play bow is their most iconic playful posture. ... more Dogs engage in play behavior at every age and the play bow is their most iconic playful posture. However, the function of this posture is still under debate. Here, we selected the Czechoslovakian Wolfdog as a model breed to clarify the function of the play bow. We analyzed frame-by-frame 118 sessions of 24 subjects and recorded 76 play bow events. We found that all the play bows were performed in the visual field of the playmate suggesting that the sender takes into account the attentional state of the receiver when releasing the signal. By drawing survival curves and using log-rank test we found that play bow was mainly performed during a short pause in an ongoing session and that its performance triggered the playmate's reaction again. These findings show that play bow functions in restoring the partner motivation to play. Finally, by using a sequential analysis and a generalized mixed model, we found no evidence supporting the metacommunicative function of the play bow. The signal did not necessarily precede a contact offensive behavior (e.g., play biting, play pushing) and it was not affected by the level of asymmetry of the play session. In conclusion, in Czechoslovakian Wolfdogs play bow can be considered a visual signal useful to maintain the motivation to play in the receiver. Therefore, we suggest that the mismatched number of play bows emitted by the two players in a given session can be predictive of their different motivation to play.

Human Nature, 2023

Humans are social animals that rely on different ways to interact with each other. The COVID-19 p... more Humans are social animals that rely on different ways to interact with each other. The COVID-19 pandemic strongly changed our communication strategies. Because of the importance of direct contact for our species, we predict that immediately after the forced social isolation, people were more prone to engage in direct rather than in virtual interactions, thus showing a lower mimicry response in the use of smartphones. In a non-longitudinal study, we collected behavioral data under naturalistic contexts and directly compared the data of the mimicry response gathered immediately following the Italian lockdown (May-September 2020) with those gathered one year later (May-October 2021). Contrary to our expectations, the mimicry response in the use of smartphones was higher immediately after the lockdown than a year later. Probably the large use of these devices during the lockdown translated into a greater sensitivity to be affected by others' smartphone manipulation. Indeed, social isolation modified, at least in the short term, the ways we interact with others by making us more prone to engage in "virtual" social interactions. The bright side of the coin unveiled by our findings is that the effect seems to diminish over time. The large behavioral dataset analyzed here (1,608 events; 248 people) also revealed that the mimicry response in the use of smartphones was higher between familiar subjects than between strangers. In this view, mimicry in manipulating smartphones can be considered an example of joint action that fosters behavioral synchrony between individuals that, in the long-term, can translate into the formation of social bonding.

Scientific Reports, 2022

Yawn contagion (YC) is, compared to spontaneous yawning, an evolutionary recent phenomenon probab... more Yawn contagion (YC) is, compared to spontaneous yawning, an evolutionary recent phenomenon probably linked to behavioral synchronization in highly social species that is more likely when it involves familiar subjects. Here, we investigate for the first time in monkeys which factors modulate intra-and interspecific YC. Through an experimental approach, we exposed 17 red-capped mangabeys to video stimuli (Yawn vs Control) depicting familiar/unfamiliar red-capped mangabeys and humans, and unfamiliar hamadryas. We found that mangabeys yawned more often in response to Yawn than Control videos independently from the species depicted, demonstrating both intra-and interspecific YC in the tested species. Moreover, both mangabey and human familiar yawning stimuli evoked a stronger yawning response in the subjects compared to the unfamiliar counterparts. Neither the amount of time spent looking frontally at the screen (probability of stimulus perception) nor the levels of self-directed behaviors (a proxy of anxiety) accounted for the results. In conclusion, we provide the first evidence that in non-human primate familiarity modulates both intra-and inter-specific YC. Stimuli emitted by familiar faces somehow ease the mechanisms underlying YC, and this modulation can also apply to heterospecific subjects when previous shared experiences provide the prerequisites for the development of social bonds.

Article, 2022

Play fighting, the most iconic form of social play, is often punctuated by specific signals, such... more Play fighting, the most iconic form of social play, is often punctuated by specific signals, such as the relaxed open mouth (ROM) display, limiting the risk of misunderstanding between playmates. Although there is general consensus that the ROM of dogs is a ritualized version of play biting, the empirical demonstration of the actual ritualization of ROM has been lacking. We videorecorded and analysed 118 playful sessions involving 24 Czechoslovakian wolfdogs (12 females; 12 males), which is a breed of domestic dog, Canis lupus familiaris, showing wolf-like behavioural traits. By using an integrated approach of different techniques (dog facial action coding system, an unsupervised cluster analysis and the Levenshtein distance), we empirically demonstrate that the ROM is intrinsically different from the play biting action in this breed of dog. Contrary to the play bite, during ROM, the recruitment of muscular action units for each facial display was more consistent, conspicuous and intra- and interindividually stereotyped. Moreover, a sequential analysis revealed that the ROM usually preceded playful offensive patterns, thus underlining the real metacommunicative function of the signal. Finally, by running a linear mixed model, we found that the most balanced sessions were punctuated by the most prolonged performance of ROM, thus revealing the efficiency of the facial signal in maintaining a balanced session. In conclusion, through the processes of formalization, simplification and emphasis, an ordinary precursor behaviour (i.e. play biting) has been taken out of context and transformed into an extraordinary, derived behaviour (i.e. ROM) specifically designed to attract receivers' attention and modulate playful social interactions in dogs.

Human-directed gazing, a keystone in dog–human communication, has been suggested to derive from b... more Human-directed gazing, a keystone in dog–human communication, has been suggested to derive from both domestication and breed selection. The influence of genetic similarity to wolves and selective pressures on human-directed gazing is still under debate. Here, we used the ‘unsolvable task’ to compare Czechoslovakian Wolfdogs (CWDs, a close-to-wolf breed), German Shepherd Dogs (GSDs) and Labrador Retrievers (LRs). In the ‘solvable task’, all dogs learned to obtain the reward; however, differently from GSDs and LRs, CWDs rarely gazed at humans. In the ‘unsolvable task’, CWDs gazed significantly less towards humans compared to LRs but not to GSDs. Although all dogs were similarly motivated to explore the apparatus, CWDs and GSDs spent a larger amount of time in manipulating it compared to LRs. A clear difference emerged in gazing at the experimenter versus owner. CWDs gazed preferentially towards the experimenter (the unfamiliar subject manipulating the food), GSDs towards their owners ...

American Journal of Primatology, 2021

Here we show for the first time that the plasticity in morphology and duration of yawning in Maca... more Here we show for the first time that the plasticity in morphology and duration of
yawning in Macaca tonkeana can be associated with different functional contexts.
Macaca tonkeana is classified as a tolerant macaque species characterized by social
interactions minimally constrained by dominance rank or kinship. Tonkean macaques,
as other egalitarian species, rely on a complex facial communicative system.
We found that the degree of mouth opening (ranging from covered to uncovered
tooth yawns) and the duration of yawning were not strictly dependent. The shortest
uncovered tooth yawns were associated with an intense locomotor/physical activity
and peaked immediately after stressful social events thus indicating an increase in
arousal. In contrast, longer yawns, independently from teeth exposure, were
primarily associated with a relaxed state of the subject. In conclusion, our study
suggests that to explore the potential different functions of yawning, it is necessary
to focus on the variability of its expression both in terms of morphology and
duration, because not all yawns tell the same story.

By gathering data on people during their ordinary daily activities, we tested if looking at, but ... more By gathering data on people during their ordinary daily activities, we tested if looking at, but not manipulating, smartphones led to a mimicry response in the observer. Manipulating and looking at the device (experimental condition), more than its mere manipulation (control condition), was critical to elicit a mimicry response in the observer. Sex, age and relationship quality between the experimenter and the observer had no effect on the smartphone mimicry response that tended to decrease during social meals. Due to the role of food as a tool in increasing social affiliation, it is possible that during communal eating, people engage in other forms of mimicry involving facial expressions and postures rather than the use of objects. Understanding the ethological mechanisms of the use of smartphones at everyday-social scale could unveil the processes at the basis of the widespread/increasing use of these devices at a large scale.

Animal Cognition, 2021

Mirror self-recognition (MSR), investigated in primates and recently in non-primate species, is c... more Mirror self-recognition (MSR), investigated in primates and recently in non-primate species, is considered a measure of self-awareness. Nowadays, the only reliable test for investigating MSR potential skills consists in the untrained response to a visual body mark detected using a reflective surface. Here, we report the first evidence of MSR at group level in horses, by facing the weaknesses of methodology present in a previous pilot study. Fourteen horses were used in a 4-phases mirror test (covered mirror, open mirror, invisible mark, visible colored mark). After engaging in a series of contingency behaviors (looking behind the mirror, peek-a-boo, head and tongue movements), our horses used the mirror surface to guide their movements towards their colored cheeks, thus showing that they can recognize themselves in a mirror. The analysis at the group level, which 'marks' a turning point in the analytical technique of MSR exploration in non-primate species, showed that horses spent a longer time in scratching their faces when marked with the visible mark compared to the non-visible mark. This finding indicates that horses did not see the non-visible mark and that they did not touch their own face guided by the tactile sensation, suggesting the presence of MSR in horses. Although a heated debate on the binary versus gradual-ist model in the MSR interpretation exists, recent empirical pieces of evidence, including ours, indicate that MSR is not an all-or-nothing phenomenon that appeared once in phylogeny and that a convergent evolution mechanism can be at the basis of its presence in phylogenetically distant taxa.

Mirror self-recognition (MSR), investigated in primates and recently in non-primate species, is c... more Mirror self-recognition (MSR), investigated in primates and recently in non-primate species, is considered a measure of self-awareness. Nowadays, the only reliable test for investigating MSR potential skills consists in the untrained response to a visual body mark detected using a reflective surface. Here, we report the first evidence of MSR at group level in horses, by facing the weaknesses of methodology present in a previous pilot study. Fourteen horses were used in a 4-phases mirror test (covered mirror, open mirror, invisible mark, visible colored mark). After engaging in a series of contingency behaviors (looking behind the mirror, peek-a-boo, head and tongue movements), our horses used the mirror surface to guide their movements towards their colored cheeks, thus showing that they can recognize themselves in a mirror. The analysis at the group level, which 'marks' a turning point in the analytical technique of MSR exploration in non-primate species, showed that horses spent a longer time in scratching their faces when marked with the visible mark compared to the non-visible mark. This finding indicates that horses did not see the non-visible mark and that they did not touch their own face guided by the tactile sensation, suggesting the presence of MSR in horses. Although a heated debate on the binary versus gradual-ist model in the MSR interpretation exists, recent empirical pieces of evidence, including ours, indicate that MSR is not an all-or-nothing phenomenon that appeared once in phylogeny and that a convergent evolution mechanism can be at the basis of its presence in phylogenetically distant taxa.

Play is uniformly distributed throughout the animal kingdom and represents a window on cognitive ... more Play is uniformly distributed throughout the animal kingdom and represents a window on cognitive and communicative abilities of a species 1 . While intraspecific play is receiving increasing attention by scholars 1-3 , interspecific play and its communication are largely neglected. We selected dog-horse play to understand how these two domestic species can manage their sessions by peculiar communicative signals despite their different communicative repertoire.

Human-directed gazing, a keystone in dog–human communication, has been suggested to derive from b... more Human-directed gazing, a keystone in dog–human communication, has been suggested to derive from both domestication and breed selection. The influence of genetic similarity to wolves and selective pressures on human-directed gazing is still under debate. Here, we used the unsolvable task’ to compare Czechoslovakian Wolfdogs (CWDs, a close-to-wolf breed), German Shepherd Dogs (GSDs) and Labrador Retrievers (LRs). In the ‘solvable task’, all dogs learned to obtain the reward; however, differently from GSDs and LRs, CWDs rarely gazed at humans. In the ‘unsolvable task’, CWDs gazed significantly less towards humans compared to LRs but not to GSDs. Although all dogs were similarly motivated to explore the apparatus, CWDs and GSDs spent a larger amount of time in manipulating it compared to LRs. A clear difference
emerged in gazing at the experimenter versus owner. CWDs gazed preferentially towards the experimenter (the unfamiliar subject manipulating the food), GSDs towards their owners and LRs gazed at humans independently from their level of familiarity. In conclusion, it emerges that the artificial selection operated on CWDs produced a breed more similar to ancient breeds (more wolf-like due to a less-intense artificial selection) and not very human-oriented. The next step is to clarify GSDs’ behaviour and better understand the genetic role of this breed in shaping CWDs’ heterospecific behaviour.

Maglieri V., Prato-Previde E., Tommasi E., Palagi E., 2019

Human-directed gazing, a keystone in dog-human communication, has been suggested to derive from b... more Human-directed gazing, a keystone in dog-human communication, has been suggested to derive from both domestication and breed selection. The influence of genetic similarity to wolves and selective pressures on human-directed gazing is still under debate. Here, we used the ‘unsolvable task’ to compare Czechoslovakian Wolfdogs (CWDs, a close-to-wolf breed), German Shepherd Dogs (GSDs) and Labrador Retrievers (LRs). In the ‘solvable task’ all dogs learned to obtain the reward; however, differently from GSDs and LRs, CWDs rarely gazed at humans. In the ‘unsolvable task’ CWDs gazed significantly less towards humans compared to LRs but not to GSDs. Although all dogs were similarly motivated to explore the apparatus, CWDs and GSDs spent a larger amount of time in manipulating it compared to LRs. A clear difference emerged in gazing at the experimenter vs owner. CWDs gazed preferentially towards the experimenter (the unfamiliar subject manipulating the food), GSDs towards their owners and LRs gazed at humans independently from their level of familiarity. In conclusion, it emerges that the artificial selection operated on CWDs produced a breed more similar to ancient breeds (more wolf-like due to a less intense artificial selection) and not very human-oriented. The next step is to clarify GSDs’ behaviour and better understand the genetic role of this breed in shaping CWDs’ hetero-specific behaviour.

Current Zoology, 2022

Dogs engage in play behavior at every age and the play bow is their most iconic playful posture. ... more Dogs engage in play behavior at every age and the play bow is their most iconic playful posture. However, the function of this posture is still under debate. Here, we selected the Czechoslovakian Wolfdog as a model breed to clarify the function of the play bow. We analyzed frame-by-frame 118 sessions of 24 subjects and recorded 76 play bow events. We found that all the play bows were performed in the visual field of the playmate suggesting that the sender takes into account the attentional state of the receiver when releasing the signal. By drawing survival curves and using log-rank test we found that play bow was mainly performed during a short pause in an ongoing session and that its performance triggered the playmate's reaction again. These findings show that play bow functions in restoring the partner motivation to play. Finally, by using a sequential analysis and a generalized mixed model, we found no evidence supporting the metacommunicative function of the play bow. The signal did not necessarily precede a contact offensive behavior (e.g., play biting, play pushing) and it was not affected by the level of asymmetry of the play session. In conclusion, in Czechoslovakian Wolfdogs play bow can be considered a visual signal useful to maintain the motivation to play in the receiver. Therefore, we suggest that the mismatched number of play bows emitted by the two players in a given session can be predictive of their different motivation to play.