Regulatory mechanisms that modulate signalling by G-protein-coupled receptors (original) (raw)

Abstract

The large and functionally diverse group of G-protein-coupled receptors includes receptors for many different signalling molecules, including peptide and non-peptide hormones and neuro-transmitters, chemokines, prostanoids and proteinases. Their principal function is to transmit information about the extracellular environment to the interior of the cell by interacting with the heterotrimeric G-proteins, and they thereby participate in many aspects of regulation. Cellular responses to agonists of these receptors are usually rapidly attenuated. Mechanisms of signal attenuation include removal of agonists from the extracellular fluid, receptor desensitization, endocytosis and down-regulation. Agonists are removed by dilution, uptake by transporters and enzymic degradation. Receptor desensitization is mediated by receptor phosphorylation by G-protein receptor kinases and second-messenger kinases, interaction of phosphorylated receptors with arrestins and receptor uncoupling from G-proteins. Agonist-induced receptor endocytosis also contributes to desensitization by depleting the cell surface of high-affinity receptors, and recycling of internalized receptors contributes to resensitization of cellular responses. Receptor down-regulation is a form of desensitization that occurs during continuous, long-term exposure of cells to receptor agonists. Down-regulation, which may occur during the development of drug tolerance, is characterized by depletion of the cellular receptor content, and is probably mediated by alterations in the rates of receptor degradation and synthesis. These regulatory mechanisms are important, as they govern the ability of cells to respond to agonists. A greater understanding of the mechanisms that modulate signalling may lead to the development of new therapies and may help to explain the mechanism of drug tolerance.

Full Text

The Full Text of this article is available as a PDF (616.4 KB).

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Alaluf S., Mulvihill E. R., McIlhinney R. A. The metabotropic glutamate receptor mGluR4, but not mGluR1 alpha, is palmitoylated when expressed in BHK cells. J Neurochem. 1995 Apr;64(4):1548–1555. doi: 10.1046/j.1471-4159.1995.64041548.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Amara S. G., Arriza J. L. Neurotransmitter transporters: three distinct gene families. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 1993 Jun;3(3):337–344. doi: 10.1016/0959-4388(93)90126-j. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Amara S. G., Kuhar M. J. Neurotransmitter transporters: recent progress. Annu Rev Neurosci. 1993;16:73–93. doi: 10.1146/annurev.ne.16.030193.000445. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Ambrose C., James M., Barnes G., Lin C., Bates G., Altherr M., Duyao M., Groot N., Church D., Wasmuth J. J. A novel G protein-coupled receptor kinase gene cloned from 4p16.3. Hum Mol Genet. 1992 Dec;1(9):697–703. doi: 10.1093/hmg/1.9.697. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Appleyard M. E. Non-cholinergic functions of acetylcholinesterase. Biochem Soc Trans. 1994 Aug;22(3):749–755. doi: 10.1042/bst0220749. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Arriza J. L., Dawson T. M., Simerly R. B., Martin L. J., Caron M. G., Snyder S. H., Lefkowitz R. J. The G-protein-coupled receptor kinases beta ARK1 and beta ARK2 are widely distributed at synapses in rat brain. J Neurosci. 1992 Oct;12(10):4045–4055. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.12-10-04045.1992. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Attramadal H., Arriza J. L., Aoki C., Dawson T. M., Codina J., Kwatra M. M., Snyder S. H., Caron M. G., Lefkowitz R. J. Beta-arrestin2, a novel member of the arrestin/beta-arrestin gene family. J Biol Chem. 1992 Sep 5;267(25):17882–17890. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Back S. A., Gorenstein C. Fluorescent histochemical localization of neutral endopeptidase-24.11 (enkephalinase) in the rat brainstem. J Comp Neurol. 1990 Jun 1;296(1):130–158. doi: 10.1002/cne.902960109. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Barak L. S., Ménard L., Ferguson S. S., Colapietro A. M., Caron M. G. The conserved seven-transmembrane sequence NP(X)2,3Y of the G-protein-coupled receptor superfamily regulates multiple properties of the beta 2-adrenergic receptor. Biochemistry. 1995 Nov 28;34(47):15407–15414. doi: 10.1021/bi00047a003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Barak L. S., Tiberi M., Freedman N. J., Kwatra M. M., Lefkowitz R. J., Caron M. G. A highly conserved tyrosine residue in G protein-coupled receptors is required for agonist-mediated beta 2-adrenergic receptor sequestration. J Biol Chem. 1994 Jan 28;269(4):2790–2795. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Barnes K., Turner A. J., Kenny A. J. An immunoelectron microscopic study of pig substantia nigra shows co-localization of endopeptidase-24.11 with substance P. Neuroscience. 1993 Apr;53(4):1073–1082. doi: 10.1016/0306-4522(93)90490-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Barnes K., Turner A. J., Kenny A. J. Electronmicroscopic immunocytochemistry of pig brain shows that endopeptidase-24.11 is localized in neuronal membranes. Neurosci Lett. 1988 Nov 22;94(1-2):64–69. doi: 10.1016/0304-3940(88)90271-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Benovic J. L., DeBlasi A., Stone W. C., Caron M. G., Lefkowitz R. J. Beta-adrenergic receptor kinase: primary structure delineates a multigene family. Science. 1989 Oct 13;246(4927):235–240. doi: 10.1126/science.2552582. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Benovic J. L., Gomez J. Molecular cloning and expression of GRK6. A new member of the G protein-coupled receptor kinase family. J Biol Chem. 1993 Sep 15;268(26):19521–19527. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Benovic J. L., Kühn H., Weyand I., Codina J., Caron M. G., Lefkowitz R. J. Functional desensitization of the isolated beta-adrenergic receptor by the beta-adrenergic receptor kinase: potential role of an analog of the retinal protein arrestin (48-kDa protein). Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1987 Dec;84(24):8879–8882. doi: 10.1073/pnas.84.24.8879. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Benovic J. L., Mayor F., Jr, Staniszewski C., Lefkowitz R. J., Caron M. G. Purification and characterization of the beta-adrenergic receptor kinase. J Biol Chem. 1987 Jul 5;262(19):9026–9032. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Benovic J. L., Onorato J. J., Arriza J. L., Stone W. C., Lohse M., Jenkins N. A., Gilbert D. J., Copeland N. G., Caron M. G., Lefkowitz R. J. Cloning, expression, and chromosomal localization of beta-adrenergic receptor kinase 2. A new member of the receptor kinase family. J Biol Chem. 1991 Aug 15;266(23):14939–14946. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Benovic J. L., Onorato J., Lohse M. J., Dohlman H. G., Staniszewski C., Caron M. G., Lefkowitz R. J. Synthetic peptides of the hamster beta 2-adrenoceptor as substrates and inhibitors of the beta-adrenoceptor kinase. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1990;30 (Suppl 1):3S–12S. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2125.1990.tb05462.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Benovic J. L., Pike L. J., Cerione R. A., Staniszewski C., Yoshimasa T., Codina J., Caron M. G., Lefkowitz R. J. Phosphorylation of the mammalian beta-adrenergic receptor by cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase. Regulation of the rate of receptor phosphorylation and dephosphorylation by agonist occupancy and effects on coupling of the receptor to the stimulatory guanine nucleotide regulatory protein. J Biol Chem. 1985 Jun 10;260(11):7094–7101. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Benya R. V., Akeson M., Mrozinski J., Jensen R. T., Battey J. F. Internalization of the gastrin-releasing peptide receptor is mediated by both phospholipase C-dependent and -independent processes. Mol Pharmacol. 1994 Sep;46(3):495–501. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Benya R. V., Fathi Z., Battey J. F., Jensen R. T. Serines and threonines in the gastrin-releasing peptide receptor carboxyl terminus mediate internalization. J Biol Chem. 1993 Sep 25;268(27):20285–20290. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Borson D. B., Brokaw J. J., Sekizawa K., McDonald D. M., Nadel J. A. Neutral endopeptidase and neurogenic inflammation in rats with respiratory infections. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1989 Jun;66(6):2653–2658. doi: 10.1152/jappl.1989.66.6.2653. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Bouvier M., Collins S., O'Dowd B. F., Campbell P. T., de Blasi A., Kobilka B. K., MacGregor C., Irons G. P., Caron M. G., Lefkowitz R. J. Two distinct pathways for cAMP-mediated down-regulation of the beta 2-adrenergic receptor. Phosphorylation of the receptor and regulation of its mRNA level. J Biol Chem. 1989 Oct 5;264(28):16786–16792. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Bouvier M., Hausdorff W. P., De Blasi A., O'Dowd B. F., Kobilka B. K., Caron M. G., Lefkowitz R. J. Removal of phosphorylation sites from the beta 2-adrenergic receptor delays onset of agonist-promoted desensitization. Nature. 1988 May 26;333(6171):370–373. doi: 10.1038/333370a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Bowden J. J., Garland A. M., Baluk P., Lefevre P., Grady E. F., Vigna S. R., Bunnett N. W., McDonald D. M. Direct observation of substance P-induced internalization of neurokinin 1 (NK1) receptors at sites of inflammation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1994 Sep 13;91(19):8964–8968. doi: 10.1073/pnas.91.19.8964. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Brown G. L., Dale H. H., Feldberg W. Reactions of the normal mammalian muscle to acetylcholine and to eserine. J Physiol. 1936 Sep 8;87(4):394–424. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1936.sp003414. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Bunnett N. W., Debas H. T., Turner A. J., Kobayashi R., Walsh J. H. Metabolism of gastrin and cholecystokinin by endopeptidase 24.11 from the pig stomach. Am J Physiol. 1988 Nov;255(5 Pt 1):G676–G684. doi: 10.1152/ajpgi.1988.255.5.G676. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Bunnett N. W., Kobayashi R., Orloff M. S., Reeve J. R., Turner A. J., Walsh J. H. Catabolism of gastrin releasing peptide and substance P by gastric membrane-bound peptidases. Peptides. 1985 Mar-Apr;6(2):277–283. doi: 10.1016/0196-9781(85)90052-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Bunnett N. W., Turner A. J., Hryszko J., Kobayashi R., Walsh J. H. Isolation of endopeptidase-24.11 (EC 3.4.24.11, "enkephalinase") from the pig stomach. Hydrolysis of substance P, gastrin-releasing peptide 10, [Leu5] enkephalin, and [Met5] enkephalin. Gastroenterology. 1988 Oct;95(4):952–957. doi: 10.1016/0016-5085(88)90168-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Bunnett N. W., Wu V., Sternini C., Klinger J., Shimomaya E., Payan D., Kobayashi R., Walsh J. H. Distribution and abundance of neutral endopeptidase (EC 3.4.24.11) in the alimentary tract of the rat. Am J Physiol. 1993 Mar;264(3 Pt 1):G497–G508. doi: 10.1152/ajpgi.1993.264.3.G497. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Böhm S. K., Khitin L. M., Grady E. F., Aponte G., Payan D. G., Bunnett N. W. Mechanisms of desensitization and resensitization of proteinase-activated receptor-2. J Biol Chem. 1996 Sep 6;271(36):22003–22016. doi: 10.1074/jbc.271.36.22003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Böhm S. K., Khitin L. M., Smeekens S. P., Grady E. F., Payan D. G., Bunnett N. W. Identification of potential tyrosine-containing endocytic motifs in the carboxyl-tail and seventh transmembrane domain of the neurokinin 1 receptor. J Biol Chem. 1997 Jan 24;272(4):2363–2372. doi: 10.1074/jbc.272.4.2363. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Campbell P. T., Hnatowich M., O'Dowd B. F., Caron M. G., Lefkowitz R. J., Hausdorff W. P. Mutations of the human beta 2-adrenergic receptor that impair coupling to Gs interfere with receptor down-regulation but not sequestration. Mol Pharmacol. 1991 Feb;39(2):192–198. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Casey P. J. Protein lipidation in cell signaling. Science. 1995 Apr 14;268(5208):221–225. doi: 10.1126/science.7716512. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Chang C. P., Lazar C. S., Walsh B. J., Komuro M., Collawn J. F., Kuhn L. A., Tainer J. A., Trowbridge I. S., Farquhar M. G., Rosenfeld M. G. Ligand-induced internalization of the epidermal growth factor receptor is mediated by multiple endocytic codes analogous to the tyrosine motif found in constitutively internalized receptors. J Biol Chem. 1993 Sep 15;268(26):19312–19320. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Chang M. P., Mallet W. G., Mostov K. E., Brodsky F. M. Adaptor self-aggregation, adaptor-receptor recognition and binding of alpha-adaptin subunits to the plasma membrane contribute to recruitment of adaptor (AP2) components of clathrin-coated pits. EMBO J. 1993 May;12(5):2169–2180. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1993.tb05865.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Chau L. Y., Peck K., Yen H. H., Wang J. Y. Agonist-induced down-regulation of platelet-activating factor receptor gene expression in U937 cells. Biochem J. 1994 Aug 1;301(Pt 3):911–916. doi: 10.1042/bj3010911. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Chen C. K., Inglese J., Lefkowitz R. J., Hurley J. B. Ca(2+)-dependent interaction of recoverin with rhodopsin kinase. J Biol Chem. 1995 Jul 28;270(30):18060–18066. doi: 10.1074/jbc.270.30.18060. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Chen C. Y., Dion S. B., Kim C. M., Benovic J. L. Beta-adrenergic receptor kinase. Agonist-dependent receptor binding promotes kinase activation. J Biol Chem. 1993 Apr 15;268(11):7825–7831. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Cheung A. H., Dixon R. A., Hill W. S., Sigal I. S., Strader C. D. Separation of the structural requirements for agonist-promoted activation and sequestration of the beta-adrenergic receptor. Mol Pharmacol. 1990 Jun;37(6):775–779. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Chuang T. T., Sallese M., Ambrosini G., Parruti G., De Blasi A. High expression of beta-adrenergic receptor kinase in human peripheral blood leukocytes. Isoproterenol and platelet activating factor can induce kinase translocation. J Biol Chem. 1992 Apr 5;267(10):6886–6892. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Chun M., Liyanage U. K., Lisanti M. P., Lodish H. F. Signal transduction of a G protein-coupled receptor in caveolae: colocalization of endothelin and its receptor with caveolin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1994 Nov 22;91(24):11728–11732. doi: 10.1073/pnas.91.24.11728. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Ciechanover A. The ubiquitin-mediated proteolytic pathway: mechanisms of action and cellular physiology. Biol Chem Hoppe Seyler. 1994 Sep;375(9):565–581. doi: 10.1515/bchm3.1994.375.9.565. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Ciechanover A. The ubiquitin-proteasome proteolytic pathway. Cell. 1994 Oct 7;79(1):13–21. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(94)90396-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Collins S., Bouvier M., Lohse M. J., Benovic J. L., Caron M. G., Lefkowitz R. J. Mechanisms involved in adrenergic receptor desensitization. Biochem Soc Trans. 1990 Aug;18(4):541–544. doi: 10.1042/bst0180541. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Collins S., Caron M. G., Lefkowitz R. J. From ligand binding to gene expression: new insights into the regulation of G-protein-coupled receptors. Trends Biochem Sci. 1992 Jan;17(1):37–39. doi: 10.1016/0968-0004(92)90425-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Collins S., Lohse M. J., O'Dowd B., Caron M. G., Lefkowitz R. J. Structure and regulation of G protein-coupled receptors: the beta 2-adrenergic receptor as a model. Vitam Horm. 1991;46:1–39. doi: 10.1016/s0083-6729(08)60681-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Craft C. M., Whitmore D. H. The arrestin superfamily: cone arrestins are a fourth family. FEBS Lett. 1995 Apr 3;362(2):247–255. doi: 10.1016/0014-5793(95)00213-s. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Craft C. M., Whitmore D. H., Wiechmann A. F. Cone arrestin identified by targeting expression of a functional family. J Biol Chem. 1994 Feb 11;269(6):4613–4619. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Dawson T. M., Arriza J. L., Jaworsky D. E., Borisy F. F., Attramadal H., Lefkowitz R. J., Ronnett G. V. Beta-adrenergic receptor kinase-2 and beta-arrestin-2 as mediators of odorant-induced desensitization. Science. 1993 Feb 5;259(5096):825–829. doi: 10.1126/science.8381559. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. De Blasi A., Parruti G., Sallese M. Regulation of G protein-coupled receptor kinase subtypes in activated T lymphocytes. Selective increase of beta-adrenergic receptor kinase 1 and 2. J Clin Invest. 1995 Jan;95(1):203–210. doi: 10.1172/JCI117641. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. Debburman S. K., Kunapuli P., Benovic J. L., Hosey M. M. Agonist-dependent phosphorylation of human muscarinic receptors in Spodoptera frugiperda insect cell membranes by G protein-coupled receptor kinases. Mol Pharmacol. 1995 Feb;47(2):224–233. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. Devault A., Lazure C., Nault C., Le Moual H., Seidah N. G., Chrétien M., Kahn P., Powell J., Mallet J., Beaumont A. Amino acid sequence of rabbit kidney neutral endopeptidase 24.11 (enkephalinase) deduced from a complementary DNA. EMBO J. 1987 May;6(5):1317–1322. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1987.tb02370.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  54. Dolph P. J., Ranganathan R., Colley N. J., Hardy R. W., Socolich M., Zuker C. S. Arrestin function in inactivation of G protein-coupled receptor rhodopsin in vivo. Science. 1993 Jun 25;260(5116):1910–1916. doi: 10.1126/science.8316831. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  55. Donnelly D., Findlay J. B., Blundell T. L. The evolution and structure of aminergic G protein-coupled receptors. Receptors Channels. 1994;2(1):61–78. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  56. Duggan A. W. Release of neuropeptides in the spinal cord. Prog Brain Res. 1995;104:197–223. doi: 10.1016/s0079-6123(08)61792-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  57. Duggan A. W., Schaible H. G., Hope P. J., Lang C. W. Effect of peptidase inhibition on the pattern of intraspinally released immunoreactive substance P detected with antibody microprobes. Brain Res. 1992 May 8;579(2):261–269. doi: 10.1016/0006-8993(92)90059-i. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  58. Dupree P., Parton R. G., Raposo G., Kurzchalia T. V., Simons K. Caveolae and sorting in the trans-Golgi network of epithelial cells. EMBO J. 1993 Apr;12(4):1597–1605. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1993.tb05804.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  59. Eason M. G., Jacinto M. T., Theiss C. T., Liggett S. B. The palmitoylated cysteine of the cytoplasmic tail of alpha 2A-adrenergic receptors confers subtype-specific agonist-promoted downregulation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1994 Nov 8;91(23):11178–11182. doi: 10.1073/pnas.91.23.11178. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  60. Eberle W., Sander C., Klaus W., Schmidt B., von Figura K., Peters C. The essential tyrosine of the internalization signal in lysosomal acid phosphatase is part of a beta turn. Cell. 1991 Dec 20;67(6):1203–1209. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(91)90296-b. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  61. Erwin A. L., Munford R. S. Deacylation of structurally diverse lipopolysaccharides by human acyloxyacyl hydrolase. J Biol Chem. 1990 Sep 25;265(27):16444–16449. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  62. Ferguson S. S., Downey W. E., 3rd, Colapietro A. M., Barak L. S., Ménard L., Caron M. G. Role of beta-arrestin in mediating agonist-promoted G protein-coupled receptor internalization. Science. 1996 Jan 19;271(5247):363–366. doi: 10.1126/science.271.5247.363. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  63. Ferguson S. S., Ménard L., Barak L. S., Koch W. J., Colapietro A. M., Caron M. G. Role of phosphorylation in agonist-promoted beta 2-adrenergic receptor sequestration. Rescue of a sequestration-defective mutant receptor by beta ARK1. J Biol Chem. 1995 Oct 20;270(42):24782–24789. doi: 10.1074/jbc.270.42.24782. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  64. Fernandez H. L., Moreno R. D., Inestrosa N. C. Tetrameric (G4) acetylcholinesterase: structure, localization, and physiological regulation. J Neurochem. 1996 Apr;66(4):1335–1346. doi: 10.1046/j.1471-4159.1996.66041335.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  65. Fraser C. M. Structure and functional analysis of G protein-coupled receptors and potential diagnostic ligands. J Nucl Med. 1995 Jun;36(6 Suppl):17S–21S. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  66. Freedman N. J., Lefkowitz R. J. Desensitization of G protein-coupled receptors. Recent Prog Horm Res. 1996;51:319–353. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  67. Freedman N. J., Liggett S. B., Drachman D. E., Pei G., Caron M. G., Lefkowitz R. J. Phosphorylation and desensitization of the human beta 1-adrenergic receptor. Involvement of G protein-coupled receptor kinases and cAMP-dependent protein kinase. J Biol Chem. 1995 Jul 28;270(30):17953–17961. doi: 10.1074/jbc.270.30.17953. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  68. Fuchs S., Nakazawa M., Maw M., Tamai M., Oguchi Y., Gal A. A homozygous 1-base pair deletion in the arrestin gene is a frequent cause of Oguchi disease in Japanese. Nat Genet. 1995 Jul;10(3):360–362. doi: 10.1038/ng0795-360. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  69. García-Higuera I., Penela P., Murga C., Egea G., Bonay P., Benovic J. L., Mayor F., Jr Association of the regulatory beta-adrenergic receptor kinase with rat liver microsomal membranes. J Biol Chem. 1994 Jan 14;269(2):1348–1355. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  70. Garland A. M., Grady E. F., Lovett M., Vigna S. R., Frucht M. M., Krause J. E., Bunnett N. W. Mechanisms of desensitization and resensitization of G protein-coupled neurokinin1 and neurokinin2 receptors. Mol Pharmacol. 1996 Mar;49(3):438–446. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  71. Garland A. M., Grady E. F., Payan D. G., Vigna S. R., Bunnett N. W. Agonist-induced internalization of the substance P (NK1) receptor expressed in epithelial cells. Biochem J. 1994 Oct 1;303(Pt 1):177–186. doi: 10.1042/bj3030177. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  72. Giros B., Caron M. G. Molecular characterization of the dopamine transporter. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 1993 Feb;14(2):43–49. doi: 10.1016/0165-6147(93)90029-j. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  73. Giros B., Jaber M., Jones S. R., Wightman R. M., Caron M. G. Hyperlocomotion and indifference to cocaine and amphetamine in mice lacking the dopamine transporter. Nature. 1996 Feb 15;379(6566):606–612. doi: 10.1038/379606a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  74. Goldman P. S., Nathanson N. M. Differential role of the carboxyl-terminal tyrosine in down-regulation and sequestration of the m2 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor. J Biol Chem. 1994 Jun 3;269(22):15640–15645. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  75. Grady E. F., Gamp P. D., Jones E., Baluk P., McDonald D. M., Payan D. G., Bunnett N. W. Endocytosis and recycling of neurokinin 1 receptors in enteric neurons. Neuroscience. 1996 Dec;75(4):1239–1254. doi: 10.1016/0306-4522(96)00357-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  76. Grady E. F., Garland A. M., Gamp P. D., Lovett M., Payan D. G., Bunnett N. W. Delineation of the endocytic pathway of substance P and its seven-transmembrane domain NK1 receptor. Mol Biol Cell. 1995 May;6(5):509–524. doi: 10.1091/mbc.6.5.509. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  77. Grady E. F., Slice L. W., Brant W. O., Walsh J. H., Payan D. G., Bunnett N. W. Direct observation of endocytosis of gastrin releasing peptide and its receptor. J Biol Chem. 1995 Mar 3;270(9):4603–4611. doi: 10.1074/jbc.270.9.4603. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  78. Gu Z. F., Pradhan T., Coy D. H., Mantey S., Bunnett N. W., Jensen R. T., Maton P. N. Actions of somatostatins on gastric smooth muscle cells. Am J Physiol. 1992 Mar;262(3 Pt 1):G432–G438. doi: 10.1152/ajpgi.1992.262.3.G432. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  79. Guarnieri F. G., Arterburn L. M., Penno M. B., Cha Y., August J. T. The motif Tyr-X-X-hydrophobic residue mediates lysosomal membrane targeting of lysosome-associated membrane protein 1. J Biol Chem. 1993 Jan 25;268(3):1941–1946. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  80. Gurevich V. V., Benovic J. L. Visual arrestin interaction with rhodopsin. Sequential multisite binding ensures strict selectivity toward light-activated phosphorylated rhodopsin. J Biol Chem. 1993 Jun 5;268(16):11628–11638. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  81. Gurevich V. V., Dion S. B., Onorato J. J., Ptasienski J., Kim C. M., Sterne-Marr R., Hosey M. M., Benovic J. L. Arrestin interactions with G protein-coupled receptors. Direct binding studies of wild type and mutant arrestins with rhodopsin, beta 2-adrenergic, and m2 muscarinic cholinergic receptors. J Biol Chem. 1995 Jan 13;270(2):720–731. doi: 10.1074/jbc.270.2.720. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  82. Gurevich V. V., Richardson R. M., Kim C. M., Hosey M. M., Benovic J. L. Binding of wild type and chimeric arrestins to the m2 muscarinic cholinergic receptor. J Biol Chem. 1993 Aug 15;268(23):16879–16882. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  83. Hadcock J. R., Malbon C. C. Agonist regulation of gene expression of adrenergic receptors and G proteins. J Neurochem. 1993 Jan;60(1):1–9. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.1993.tb05816.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  84. Hadcock J. R., Ros M., Malbon C. C. Agonist regulation of beta-adrenergic receptor mRNA. Analysis in S49 mouse lymphoma mutants. J Biol Chem. 1989 Aug 15;264(23):13956–13961. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  85. Haft C. R., Klausner R. D., Taylor S. I. Involvement of dileucine motifs in the internalization and degradation of the insulin receptor. J Biol Chem. 1994 Oct 21;269(42):26286–26294. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  86. Haga K., Kameyama K., Haga T., Kikkawa U., Shiozaki K., Uchiyama H. Phosphorylation of human m1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptors by G protein-coupled receptor kinase 2 and protein kinase C. J Biol Chem. 1996 Feb 2;271(5):2776–2782. doi: 10.1074/jbc.271.5.2776. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  87. Harter C., Mellman I. Transport of the lysosomal membrane glycoprotein lgp120 (lgp-A) to lysosomes does not require appearance on the plasma membrane. J Cell Biol. 1992 Apr;117(2):311–325. doi: 10.1083/jcb.117.2.311. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  88. Hausdorff W. P., Bouvier M., O'Dowd B. F., Irons G. P., Caron M. G., Lefkowitz R. J. Phosphorylation sites on two domains of the beta 2-adrenergic receptor are involved in distinct pathways of receptor desensitization. J Biol Chem. 1989 Jul 25;264(21):12657–12665. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  89. Hausdorff W. P., Campbell P. T., Ostrowski J., Yu S. S., Caron M. G., Lefkowitz R. J. A small region of the beta-adrenergic receptor is selectively involved in its rapid regulation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1991 Apr 15;88(8):2979–2983. doi: 10.1073/pnas.88.8.2979. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  90. Hein L., Ishii K., Coughlin S. R., Kobilka B. K. Intracellular targeting and trafficking of thrombin receptors. A novel mechanism for resensitization of a G protein-coupled receptor. J Biol Chem. 1994 Nov 4;269(44):27719–27726. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  91. Hicke L., Riezman H. Ubiquitination of a yeast plasma membrane receptor signals its ligand-stimulated endocytosis. Cell. 1996 Jan 26;84(2):277–287. doi: 10.1016/s0092-8674(00)80982-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  92. Hoxie J. A., Ahuja M., Belmonte E., Pizarro S., Parton R., Brass L. F. Internalization and recycling of activated thrombin receptors. J Biol Chem. 1993 Jun 25;268(18):13756–13763. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  93. Huang Z., Chen Y., Nissenson R. A. The cytoplasmic tail of the G-protein-coupled receptor for parathyroid hormone and parathyroid hormone-related protein contains positive and negative signals for endocytosis. J Biol Chem. 1995 Jan 6;270(1):151–156. doi: 10.1074/jbc.270.1.151. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  94. Hunyady L., Baukal A. J., Balla T., Catt K. J. Independence of type I angiotensin II receptor endocytosis from G protein coupling and signal transduction. J Biol Chem. 1994 Oct 7;269(40):24798–24804. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  95. Hunyady L., Bor M., Balla T., Catt K. J. Identification of a cytoplasmic Ser-Thr-Leu motif that determines agonist-induced internalization of the AT1 angiotensin receptor. J Biol Chem. 1994 Dec 16;269(50):31378–31382. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  96. Hunyady L., Bor M., Baukal A. J., Balla T., Catt K. J. A conserved NPLFY sequence contributes to agonist binding and signal transduction but is not an internalization signal for the type 1 angiotensin II receptor. J Biol Chem. 1995 Jul 14;270(28):16602–16609. doi: 10.1074/jbc.270.28.16602. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  97. Hwang L., Leichter R., Okamoto A., Payan D., Collins S. M., Bunnett N. W. Downregulation of neutral endopeptidase (EC 3.4.24.11) in the inflamed rat intestine. Am J Physiol. 1993 Apr;264(4 Pt 1):G735–G743. doi: 10.1152/ajpgi.1993.264.4.G735. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  98. Höning S., Hunziker W. Cytoplasmic determinants involved in direct lysosomal sorting, endocytosis, and basolateral targeting of rat lgp120 (lamp-I) in MDCK cells. J Cell Biol. 1995 Feb;128(3):321–332. doi: 10.1083/jcb.128.3.321. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  99. Inglese J., Freedman N. J., Koch W. J., Lefkowitz R. J. Structure and mechanism of the G protein-coupled receptor kinases. J Biol Chem. 1993 Nov 15;268(32):23735–23738. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  100. Inglese J., Glickman J. F., Lorenz W., Caron M. G., Lefkowitz R. J. Isoprenylation of a protein kinase. Requirement of farnesylation/alpha-carboxyl methylation for full enzymatic activity of rhodopsin kinase. J Biol Chem. 1992 Jan 25;267(3):1422–1425. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  101. Inglese J., Koch W. J., Caron M. G., Lefkowitz R. J. Isoprenylation in regulation of signal transduction by G-protein-coupled receptor kinases. Nature. 1992 Sep 10;359(6391):147–150. doi: 10.1038/359147a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  102. Ishii K., Chen J., Ishii M., Koch W. J., Freedman N. J., Lefkowitz R. J., Coughlin S. R. Inhibition of thrombin receptor signaling by a G-protein coupled receptor kinase. Functional specificity among G-protein coupled receptor kinases. J Biol Chem. 1994 Jan 14;269(2):1125–1130. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  103. Kameyama K., Haga K., Haga T., Kontani K., Katada T., Fukada Y. Activation by G protein beta gamma subunits of beta-adrenergic and muscarinic receptor kinase. J Biol Chem. 1993 Apr 15;268(11):7753–7758. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  104. Kanner B. I. Glutamate transporters from brain. A novel neurotransmitter transporter family. FEBS Lett. 1993 Jun 28;325(1-2):95–99. doi: 10.1016/0014-5793(93)81421-u. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  105. Kawate N., Menon K. M. Palmitoylation of luteinizing hormone/human choriogonadotropin receptors in transfected cells. Abolition of palmitoylation by mutation of Cys-621 and Cys-622 residues in the cytoplasmic tail increases ligand-induced internalization of the receptor. J Biol Chem. 1994 Dec 2;269(48):30651–30658. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  106. Keith D. E., Murray S. R., Zaki P. A., Chu P. C., Lissin D. V., Kang L., Evans C. J., von Zastrow M. Morphine activates opioid receptors without causing their rapid internalization. J Biol Chem. 1996 Aug 9;271(32):19021–19024. doi: 10.1074/jbc.271.32.19021. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  107. Kennedy M. E., Limbird L. E. Mutations of the alpha 2A-adrenergic receptor that eliminate detectable palmitoylation do not perturb receptor-G-protein coupling. J Biol Chem. 1993 Apr 15;268(11):8003–8011. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  108. Kerr M. A., Kenny A. J. The purification and specificity of a neutral endopeptidase from rabbit kidney brush border. Biochem J. 1974 Mar;137(3):477–488. doi: 10.1042/bj1370477. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  109. Koch W. J., Inglese J., Stone W. C., Lefkowitz R. J. The binding site for the beta gamma subunits of heterotrimeric G proteins on the beta-adrenergic receptor kinase. J Biol Chem. 1993 Apr 15;268(11):8256–8260. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  110. Koenig J. A., Edwardson J. M. Kinetic analysis of the trafficking of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors between the plasma membrane and intracellular compartments. J Biol Chem. 1994 Jun 24;269(25):17174–17182. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  111. Kong G., Penn R., Benovic J. L. A beta-adrenergic receptor kinase dominant negative mutant attenuates desensitization of the beta 2-adrenergic receptor. J Biol Chem. 1994 May 6;269(18):13084–13087. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  112. Kurose H., Lefkowitz R. J. Differential desensitization and phosphorylation of three cloned and transfected alpha 2-adrenergic receptor subtypes. J Biol Chem. 1994 Apr 1;269(13):10093–10099. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  113. Kwatra M. M., Benovic J. L., Caron M. G., Lefkowitz R. J., Hosey M. M. Phosphorylation of chick heart muscarinic cholinergic receptors by the beta-adrenergic receptor kinase. Biochemistry. 1989 May 30;28(11):4543–4547. doi: 10.1021/bi00437a005. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  114. Kwatra M. M., Schwinn D. A., Schreurs J., Blank J. L., Kim C. M., Benovic J. L., Krause J. E., Caron M. G., Lefkowitz R. J. The substance P receptor, which couples to Gq/11, is a substrate of beta-adrenergic receptor kinase 1 and 2. J Biol Chem. 1993 May 5;268(13):9161–9164. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  115. Lamaze C., Schmid S. L. Recruitment of epidermal growth factor receptors into coated pits requires their activated tyrosine kinase. J Cell Biol. 1995 Apr;129(1):47–54. doi: 10.1083/jcb.129.1.47. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  116. Lee N. H., Earle-Hughes J., Fraser C. M. Agonist-mediated destabilization of m1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor mRNA. Elements involved in mRNA stability are localized in the 3'-untranslated region. J Biol Chem. 1994 Feb 11;269(6):4291–4298. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  117. Lefkowitz R. J. G protein-coupled receptor kinases. Cell. 1993 Aug 13;74(3):409–412. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(93)80042-d. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  118. Letourneur F., Klausner R. D. A novel di-leucine motif and a tyrosine-based motif independently mediate lysosomal targeting and endocytosis of CD3 chains. Cell. 1992 Jun 26;69(7):1143–1157. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(92)90636-q. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  119. Lohse M. J., Andexinger S., Pitcher J., Trukawinski S., Codina J., Faure J. P., Caron M. G., Lefkowitz R. J. Receptor-specific desensitization with purified proteins. Kinase dependence and receptor specificity of beta-arrestin and arrestin in the beta 2-adrenergic receptor and rhodopsin systems. J Biol Chem. 1992 Apr 25;267(12):8558–8564. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  120. Lohse M. J., Benovic J. L., Caron M. G., Lefkowitz R. J. Multiple pathways of rapid beta 2-adrenergic receptor desensitization. Delineation with specific inhibitors. J Biol Chem. 1990 Feb 25;265(6):3202–3211. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  121. Lohse M. J., Benovic J. L., Codina J., Caron M. G., Lefkowitz R. J. beta-Arrestin: a protein that regulates beta-adrenergic receptor function. Science. 1990 Jun 22;248(4962):1547–1550. doi: 10.1126/science.2163110. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  122. Lohse M. J., Benovic J. L., Codina J., Caron M. G., Lefkowitz R. J. beta-Arrestin: a protein that regulates beta-adrenergic receptor function. Science. 1990 Jun 22;248(4962):1547–1550. doi: 10.1126/science.2163110. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  123. Lohse M. J. Molecular mechanisms of membrane receptor desensitization. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1993 Nov 7;1179(2):171–188. doi: 10.1016/0167-4889(93)90139-g. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  124. Lu B., Gerard N. P., Kolakowski L. F., Jr, Bozza M., Zurakowski D., Finco O., Carroll M. C., Gerard C. Neutral endopeptidase modulation of septic shock. J Exp Med. 1995 Jun 1;181(6):2271–2275. doi: 10.1084/jem.181.6.2271. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  125. Malfroy B., Schofield P. R., Kuang W. J., Seeburg P. H., Mason A. J., Henzel W. J. Molecular cloning and amino acid sequence of rat enkephalinase. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1987 Apr 14;144(1):59–66. doi: 10.1016/s0006-291x(87)80475-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  126. Manaka H., Manaka Y., Kostolanska F., Fox J. E., Daniel E. E. Release of VIP and substance P from isolated perfused canine ileum. Am J Physiol. 1989 Aug;257(2 Pt 1):G182–G190. doi: 10.1152/ajpgi.1989.257.2.G182. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  127. Mantyh P. W., Allen C. J., Ghilardi J. R., Rogers S. D., Mantyh C. R., Liu H., Basbaum A. I., Vigna S. R., Maggio J. E. Rapid endocytosis of a G protein-coupled receptor: substance P evoked internalization of its receptor in the rat striatum in vivo. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1995 Mar 28;92(7):2622–2626. doi: 10.1073/pnas.92.7.2622. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  128. Mantyh P. W., DeMaster E., Malhotra A., Ghilardi J. R., Rogers S. D., Mantyh C. R., Liu H., Basbaum A. I., Vigna S. R., Maggio J. E. Receptor endocytosis and dendrite reshaping in spinal neurons after somatosensory stimulation. Science. 1995 Jun 16;268(5217):1629–1632. doi: 10.1126/science.7539937. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  129. Matsas R., Kenny A. J., Turner A. J. An immunohistochemical study of endopeptidase-24.11 ("enkephalinase") in the pig nervous system. Neuroscience. 1986 Aug;18(4):991–1012. doi: 10.1016/0306-4522(86)90113-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  130. Matsas R., Kenny A. J., Turner A. J. The metabolism of neuropeptides. The hydrolysis of peptides, including enkephalins, tachykinins and their analogues, by endopeptidase-24.11. Biochem J. 1984 Oct 15;223(2):433–440. doi: 10.1042/bj2230433. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  131. Mayor S., Presley J. F., Maxfield F. R. Sorting of membrane components from endosomes and subsequent recycling to the cell surface occurs by a bulk flow process. J Cell Biol. 1993 Jun;121(6):1257–1269. doi: 10.1083/jcb.121.6.1257. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  132. McDowell J. H., Nawrocki J. P., Hargrave P. A. Phosphorylation sites in bovine rhodopsin. Biochemistry. 1993 May 11;32(18):4968–4974. doi: 10.1021/bi00069a036. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  133. Menozzi D., Gu Z. F., Maton P. N., Bunnett N. W. Inhibition of peptidases potentiates enkephalin-stimulated contraction of gastric muscle cells. Am J Physiol. 1991 Sep;261(3 Pt 1):G476–G484. doi: 10.1152/ajpgi.1991.261.3.G476. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  134. Minelli A., Brecha N. C., Karschin C., DeBiasi S., Conti F. GAT-1, a high-affinity GABA plasma membrane transporter, is localized to neurons and astroglia in the cerebral cortex. J Neurosci. 1995 Nov;15(11):7734–7746. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.15-11-07734.1995. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  135. Miyazawa K., Toyama K., Gotoh A., Hendrie P. C., Mantel C., Broxmeyer H. E. Ligand-dependent polyubiquitination of c-kit gene product: a possible mechanism of receptor down modulation in M07e cells. Blood. 1994 Jan 1;83(1):137–145. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  136. Mochly-Rosen D. Localization of protein kinases by anchoring proteins: a theme in signal transduction. Science. 1995 Apr 14;268(5208):247–251. doi: 10.1126/science.7716516. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  137. Moffett S., Adam L., Bonin H., Loisel T. P., Bouvier M., Mouillac B. Palmitoylated cysteine 341 modulates phosphorylation of the beta2-adrenergic receptor by the cAMP-dependent protein kinase. J Biol Chem. 1996 Aug 30;271(35):21490–21497. doi: 10.1074/jbc.271.35.21490. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  138. Moffett S., Mouillac B., Bonin H., Bouvier M. Altered phosphorylation and desensitization patterns of a human beta 2-adrenergic receptor lacking the palmitoylated Cys341. EMBO J. 1993 Jan;12(1):349–356. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1993.tb05663.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  139. Mori S., Heldin C. H., Claesson-Welsh L. Ligand-induced polyubiquitination of the platelet-derived growth factor beta-receptor. J Biol Chem. 1992 Mar 25;267(9):6429–6434. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  140. Mori S., Tanaka K., Omura S., Saito Y. Degradation process of ligand-stimulated platelet-derived growth factor beta-receptor involves ubiquitin-proteasome proteolytic pathway. J Biol Chem. 1995 Dec 8;270(49):29447–29452. doi: 10.1074/jbc.270.49.29447. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  141. Moro O., Lameh J., Sadée W. Serine- and threonine-rich domain regulates internalization of muscarinic cholinergic receptors. J Biol Chem. 1993 Apr 5;268(10):6862–6865. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  142. Moro O., Shockley M. S., Lameh J., Sadée W. Overlapping multi-site domains of the muscarinic cholinergic Hm1 receptor involved in signal transduction and sequestration. J Biol Chem. 1994 Mar 4;269(9):6651–6655. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  143. Mouillac B., Caron M., Bonin H., Dennis M., Bouvier M. Agonist-modulated palmitoylation of beta 2-adrenergic receptor in Sf9 cells. J Biol Chem. 1992 Oct 25;267(30):21733–21737. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  144. Murakami A., Yajima T., Sakuma H., McLaren M. J., Inana G. X-arrestin: a new retinal arrestin mapping to the X chromosome. FEBS Lett. 1993 Nov 15;334(2):203–209. doi: 10.1016/0014-5793(93)81712-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  145. Murga C., Ruiz-Gómez A., García-Higuera I., Kim C. M., Benovic J. L., Mayor F., Jr High affinity binding of beta-adrenergic receptor kinase to microsomal membranes. Modulation of the activity of bound kinase by heterotrimeric G protein activation. J Biol Chem. 1996 Jan 12;271(2):985–994. doi: 10.1074/jbc.271.2.985. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  146. Nambi P., Peters J. R., Sibley D. R., Lefkowitz R. J. Desensitization of the turkey erythrocyte beta-adrenergic receptor in a cell-free system. Evidence that multiple protein kinases can phosphorylate and desensitize the receptor. J Biol Chem. 1985 Feb 25;260(4):2165–2171. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  147. Nesterov A., Wiley H. S., Gill G. N. Ligand-induced endocytosis of epidermal growth factor receptors that are defective in binding adaptor proteins. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1995 Sep 12;92(19):8719–8723. doi: 10.1073/pnas.92.19.8719. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  148. Ng G. Y., Mouillac B., George S. R., Caron M., Dennis M., Bouvier M., O'Dowd B. F. Desensitization, phosphorylation and palmitoylation of the human dopamine D1 receptor. Eur J Pharmacol. 1994 Mar 15;267(1):7–19. doi: 10.1016/0922-4106(94)90219-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  149. Ng G. Y., O'Dowd B. F., Caron M., Dennis M., Brann M. R., George S. R. Phosphorylation and palmitoylation of the human D2L dopamine receptor in Sf9 cells. J Neurochem. 1994 Nov;63(5):1589–1595. doi: 10.1046/j.1471-4159.1994.63051589.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  150. Nussenzveig D. R., Heinflink M., Gershengorn M. C. Agonist-stimulated internalization of the thyrotropin-releasing hormone receptor is dependent on two domains in the receptor carboxyl terminus. J Biol Chem. 1993 Feb 5;268(4):2389–2392. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  151. O'Dowd B. F., Hnatowich M., Caron M. G., Lefkowitz R. J., Bouvier M. Palmitoylation of the human beta 2-adrenergic receptor. Mutation of Cys341 in the carboxyl tail leads to an uncoupled nonpalmitoylated form of the receptor. J Biol Chem. 1989 May 5;264(13):7564–7569. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  152. Ogata S., Fukuda M. Lysosomal targeting of Limp II membrane glycoprotein requires a novel Leu-Ile motif at a particular position in its cytoplasmic tail. J Biol Chem. 1994 Feb 18;269(7):5210–5217. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  153. Ogilvie A. D., Battersby S., Bubb V. J., Fink G., Harmar A. J., Goodwim G. M., Smith C. A. Polymorphism in serotonin transporter gene associated with susceptibility to major depression. Lancet. 1996 Mar 16;347(9003):731–733. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(96)90079-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  154. Ohguro H., Johnson R. S., Ericsson L. H., Walsh K. A., Palczewski K. Control of rhodopsin multiple phosphorylation. Biochemistry. 1994 Feb 1;33(4):1023–1028. doi: 10.1021/bi00170a022. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  155. Ohguro H., Palczewski K., Ericsson L. H., Walsh K. A., Johnson R. S. Sequential phosphorylation of rhodopsin at multiple sites. Biochemistry. 1993 Jun 1;32(21):5718–5724. doi: 10.1021/bi00072a030. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  156. Ohguro H., Van Hooser J. P., Milam A. H., Palczewski K. Rhodopsin phosphorylation and dephosphorylation in vivo. J Biol Chem. 1995 Jun 16;270(24):14259–14262. doi: 10.1074/jbc.270.24.14259. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  157. Ohno H., Stewart J., Fournier M. C., Bosshart H., Rhee I., Miyatake S., Saito T., Gallusser A., Kirchhausen T., Bonifacino J. S. Interaction of tyrosine-based sorting signals with clathrin-associated proteins. Science. 1995 Sep 29;269(5232):1872–1875. doi: 10.1126/science.7569928. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  158. Okamoto A., Lovett M., Payan D. G., Bunnett N. W. Interactions between neutral endopeptidase (EC 3.4.24.11) and the substance P (NK1) receptor expressed in mammalian cells. Biochem J. 1994 May 1;299(Pt 3):683–693. doi: 10.1042/bj2990683. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  159. Onorato J. J., Palczewski K., Regan J. W., Caron M. G., Lefkowitz R. J., Benovic J. L. Role of acidic amino acids in peptide substrates of the beta-adrenergic receptor kinase and rhodopsin kinase. Biochemistry. 1991 May 28;30(21):5118–5125. doi: 10.1021/bi00235a002. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  160. Oppermann M., Freedman N. J., Alexander R. W., Lefkowitz R. J. Phosphorylation of the type 1A angiotensin II receptor by G protein-coupled receptor kinases and protein kinase C. J Biol Chem. 1996 May 31;271(22):13266–13272. doi: 10.1074/jbc.271.22.13266. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  161. Opresko L. K., Chang C. P., Will B. H., Burke P. M., Gill G. N., Wiley H. S. Endocytosis and lysosomal targeting of epidermal growth factor receptors are mediated by distinct sequences independent of the tyrosine kinase domain. J Biol Chem. 1995 Mar 3;270(9):4325–4333. doi: 10.1074/jbc.270.9.4325. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  162. Ovchinnikov YuA, Abdulaev N. G., Bogachuk A. S. Two adjacent cysteine residues in the C-terminal cytoplasmic fragment of bovine rhodopsin are palmitylated. FEBS Lett. 1988 Mar 28;230(1-2):1–5. doi: 10.1016/0014-5793(88)80628-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  163. Ozcelebi F., Miller L. J. Phosphopeptide mapping of cholecystokinin receptors on agonist-stimulated native pancreatic acinar cells. J Biol Chem. 1995 Feb 17;270(7):3435–3441. doi: 10.1074/jbc.270.7.3435. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  164. Ozcelebi F., Rao R. V., Holicky E., Madden B. J., McCormick D. J., Miller L. J. Phosphorylation of cholecystokinin receptors expressed on Chinese hamster ovary cells. Similarities and differences relative to native pancreatic acinar cell receptors. J Biol Chem. 1996 Feb 16;271(7):3750–3755. doi: 10.1074/jbc.271.7.3750. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  165. Paccaud J. P., Reith W., Johansson B., Magnusson K. E., Mach B., Carpentier J. L. Clathrin-coated pit-mediated receptor internalization. Role of internalization signals and receptor mobility. J Biol Chem. 1993 Nov 5;268(31):23191–23196. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  166. Palczewski K., Arendt A., McDowell J. H., Hargrave P. A. Substrate recognition determinants for rhodopsin kinase: studies with synthetic peptides, polyanions, and polycations. Biochemistry. 1989 Oct 31;28(22):8764–8770. doi: 10.1021/bi00448a013. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  167. Palczewski K., Buczyłko J., Lebioda L., Crabb J. W., Polans A. S. Identification of the N-terminal region in rhodopsin kinase involved in its interaction with rhodopsin. J Biol Chem. 1993 Mar 15;268(8):6004–6013. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  168. Palczewski K. Structure and functions of arrestins. Protein Sci. 1994 Sep;3(9):1355–1361. doi: 10.1002/pro.5560030901. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  169. Papac D. I., Oatis J. E., Jr, Crouch R. K., Knapp D. R. Mass spectrometric identification of phosphorylation sites in bleached bovine rhodopsin. Biochemistry. 1993 Jun 15;32(23):5930–5934. doi: 10.1021/bi00074a002. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  170. Parker E. M., Swigart P., Nunnally M. H., Perkins J. P., Ross E. M. Carboxyl-terminal domains in the avian beta 1-adrenergic receptor that regulate agonist-promoted endocytosis. J Biol Chem. 1995 Mar 24;270(12):6482–6487. doi: 10.1074/jbc.270.12.6482. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  171. Parma J., Duprez L., Van Sande J., Cochaux P., Gervy C., Mockel J., Dumont J., Vassart G. Somatic mutations in the thyrotropin receptor gene cause hyperfunctioning thyroid adenomas. Nature. 1993 Oct 14;365(6447):649–651. doi: 10.1038/365649a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  172. Parruti G., Ambrosini G., Sallese M., De Blasi A. Molecular cloning, functional expression and mRNA analysis of human beta-adrenergic receptor kinase 2. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1993 Jan 29;190(2):475–481. doi: 10.1006/bbrc.1993.1072. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  173. Parruti G., Peracchia F., Sallese M., Ambrosini G., Masini M., Rotilio D., De Blasi A. Molecular analysis of human beta-arrestin-1: cloning, tissue distribution, and regulation of expression. Identification of two isoforms generated by alternative splicing. J Biol Chem. 1993 May 5;268(13):9753–9761. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  174. Parton R. G., Simons K. Digging into caveolae. Science. 1995 Sep 8;269(5229):1398–1399. doi: 10.1126/science.7660120. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  175. Pei G., Kieffer B. L., Lefkowitz R. J., Freedman N. J. Agonist-dependent phosphorylation of the mouse delta-opioid receptor: involvement of G protein-coupled receptor kinases but not protein kinase C. Mol Pharmacol. 1995 Aug;48(2):173–177. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  176. Pippig S., Andexinger S., Daniel K., Puzicha M., Caron M. G., Lefkowitz R. J., Lohse M. J. Overexpression of beta-arrestin and beta-adrenergic receptor kinase augment desensitization of beta 2-adrenergic receptors. J Biol Chem. 1993 Feb 15;268(5):3201–3208. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  177. Pippig S., Andexinger S., Lohse M. J. Sequestration and recycling of beta 2-adrenergic receptors permit receptor resensitization. Mol Pharmacol. 1995 Apr;47(4):666–676. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  178. Pitcher J. A., Inglese J., Higgins J. B., Arriza J. L., Casey P. J., Kim C., Benovic J. L., Kwatra M. M., Caron M. G., Lefkowitz R. J. Role of beta gamma subunits of G proteins in targeting the beta-adrenergic receptor kinase to membrane-bound receptors. Science. 1992 Aug 28;257(5074):1264–1267. doi: 10.1126/science.1325672. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  179. Pollard H., Bouthenet M. L., Moreau J., Souil E., Verroust P., Ronco P., Schwartz J. C. Detailed immunoautoradiographic mapping of enkephalinase (EC 3.4.24.11) in rat central nervous system: comparison with enkephalins and substance P. Neuroscience. 1989;30(2):339–376. doi: 10.1016/0306-4522(89)90258-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  180. Port J. D., Huang L. Y., Malbon C. C. Beta-adrenergic agonists that down-regulate receptor mRNA up-regulate a M(r) 35,000 protein(s) that selectively binds to beta-adrenergic receptor mRNAs. J Biol Chem. 1992 Nov 25;267(33):24103–24108. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  181. Post S. R., Aguila-Buhain O., Insel P. A. A key role for protein kinase A in homologous desensitization of the beta 2-adrenergic receptor pathway in S49 lymphoma cells. J Biol Chem. 1996 Jan 12;271(2):895–900. doi: 10.1074/jbc.271.2.895. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  182. Premont R. T., Inglese J., Lefkowitz R. J. Protein kinases that phosphorylate activated G protein-coupled receptors. FASEB J. 1995 Feb;9(2):175–182. doi: 10.1096/fasebj.9.2.7781920. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  183. Premont R. T., Koch W. J., Inglese J., Lefkowitz R. J. Identification, purification, and characterization of GRK5, a member of the family of G protein-coupled receptor kinases. J Biol Chem. 1994 Mar 4;269(9):6832–6841. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  184. Premont R. T., Macrae A. D., Stoffel R. H., Chung N., Pitcher J. A., Ambrose C., Inglese J., MacDonald M. E., Lefkowitz R. J. Characterization of the G protein-coupled receptor kinase GRK4. Identification of four splice variants. J Biol Chem. 1996 Mar 15;271(11):6403–6410. doi: 10.1074/jbc.271.11.6403. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  185. Raynor K., Kong H., Hines J., Kong G., Benovic J., Yasuda K., Bell G. I., Reisine T. Molecular mechanisms of agonist-induced desensitization of the cloned mouse kappa opioid receptor. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1994 Sep;270(3):1381–1386. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  186. Relton J. M., Gee N. S., Matsas R., Turner A. J., Kenny A. J. Purification of endopeptidase-24.11 ('enkephalinase') from pig brain by immunoadsorbent chromatography. Biochem J. 1983 Dec 1;215(3):519–523. doi: 10.1042/bj2150519. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  187. Rodriguez M. C., Xie Y. B., Wang H., Collison K., Segaloff D. L. Effects of truncations of the cytoplasmic tail of the luteinizing hormone/chorionic gonadotropin receptor on receptor-mediated hormone internalization. Mol Endocrinol. 1992 Mar;6(3):327–336. doi: 10.1210/mend.6.3.1316539. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  188. Roettger B. F., Rentsch R. U., Hadac E. M., Hellen E. H., Burghardt T. P., Miller L. J. Insulation of a G protein-coupled receptor on the plasmalemmal surface of the pancreatic acinar cell. J Cell Biol. 1995 Aug;130(3):579–590. doi: 10.1083/jcb.130.3.579. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  189. Roettger B. F., Rentsch R. U., Pinon D., Holicky E., Hadac E., Larkin J. M., Miller L. J. Dual pathways of internalization of the cholecystokinin receptor. J Cell Biol. 1995 Mar;128(6):1029–1041. doi: 10.1083/jcb.128.6.1029. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  190. Rohrer J., Bénédetti H., Zanolari B., Riezman H. Identification of a novel sequence mediating regulated endocytosis of the G protein-coupled alpha-pheromone receptor in yeast. Mol Biol Cell. 1993 May;4(5):511–521. doi: 10.1091/mbc.4.5.511. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  191. Roques B. P., Noble F., Daugé V., Fournié-Zaluski M. C., Beaumont A. Neutral endopeptidase 24.11: structure, inhibition, and experimental and clinical pharmacology. Pharmacol Rev. 1993 Mar;45(1):87–146. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  192. Sakai T., Okano Y., Nozawa Y., Oka N. Different protein kinase C isozymes could modulate bradykinin-induced extracellular calcium-dependent and -independent increases in osteoblast-like MC3T3-E1 cells. Cell Calcium. 1992 May;13(5):329–340. doi: 10.1016/0143-4160(92)90068-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  193. Sallese M., Lombardi M. S., De Blasi A. Two isoforms of G protein-coupled receptor kinase 4 identified by molecular cloning. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1994 Mar 15;199(2):848–854. doi: 10.1006/bbrc.1994.1306. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  194. Schandel K. A., Jenness D. D. Direct evidence for ligand-induced internalization of the yeast alpha-factor pheromone receptor. Mol Cell Biol. 1994 Nov;14(11):7245–7255. doi: 10.1128/mcb.14.11.7245. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  195. Schleicher S., Boekhoff I., Arriza J., Lefkowitz R. J., Breer H. A beta-adrenergic receptor kinase-like enzyme is involved in olfactory signal termination. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1993 Feb 15;90(4):1420–1424. doi: 10.1073/pnas.90.4.1420. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  196. Shenker A., Laue L., Kosugi S., Merendino J. J., Jr, Minegishi T., Cutler G. B., Jr A constitutively activating mutation of the luteinizing hormone receptor in familial male precocious puberty. Nature. 1993 Oct 14;365(6447):652–654. doi: 10.1038/365652a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  197. Shih M., Malbon C. C. Oligodeoxynucleotides antisense to mRNA encoding protein kinase A, protein kinase C, and beta-adrenergic receptor kinase reveal distinctive cell-type-specific roles in agonist-induced desensitization. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1994 Dec 6;91(25):12193–12197. doi: 10.1073/pnas.91.25.12193. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  198. Shipp M. A., Tarr G. E., Chen C. Y., Switzer S. N., Hersh L. B., Stein H., Sunday M. E., Reinherz E. L. CD10/neutral endopeptidase 24.11 hydrolyzes bombesin-like peptides and regulates the growth of small cell carcinomas of the lung. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1991 Dec 1;88(23):10662–10666. doi: 10.1073/pnas.88.23.10662. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  199. Sibley D. R., Strasser R. H., Benovic J. L., Daniel K., Lefkowitz R. J. Phosphorylation/dephosphorylation of the beta-adrenergic receptor regulates its functional coupling to adenylate cyclase and subcellular distribution. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1986 Dec;83(24):9408–9412. doi: 10.1073/pnas.83.24.9408. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  200. Slice L. W., Wong H. C., Sternini C., Grady E. F., Bunnett N. W., Walsh J. H. The conserved NPXnY motif present in the gastrin-releasing peptide receptor is not a general sequestration sequence. J Biol Chem. 1994 Aug 26;269(34):21755–21761. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  201. Sorkin A., Carpenter G. Interaction of activated EGF receptors with coated pit adaptins. Science. 1993 Jul 30;261(5121):612–615. doi: 10.1126/science.8342026. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  202. Sorkin A., Waters C. M. Endocytosis of growth factor receptors. Bioessays. 1993 Jun;15(6):375–382. doi: 10.1002/bies.950150603. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  203. Stadel J. M., Nambi P., Shorr R. G., Sawyer D. F., Caron M. G., Lefkowitz R. J. Catecholamine-induced desensitization of turkey erythrocyte adenylate cyclase is associated with phosphorylation of the beta-adrenergic receptor. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1983 Jun;80(11):3173–3177. doi: 10.1073/pnas.80.11.3173. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  204. Sterne-Marr R., Gurevich V. V., Goldsmith P., Bodine R. C., Sanders C., Donoso L. A., Benovic J. L. Polypeptide variants of beta-arrestin and arrestin3. J Biol Chem. 1993 Jul 25;268(21):15640–15648. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  205. Sternini C., Spann M., Anton B., Keith D. E., Jr, Bunnett N. W., von Zastrow M., Evans C., Brecha N. C. Agonist-selective endocytosis of mu opioid receptor by neurons in vivo. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1996 Aug 20;93(17):9241–9246. doi: 10.1073/pnas.93.17.9241. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  206. Stoffel R. H., Randall R. R., Premont R. T., Lefkowitz R. J., Inglese J. Palmitoylation of G protein-coupled receptor kinase, GRK6. Lipid modification diversity in the GRK family. J Biol Chem. 1994 Nov 11;269(45):27791–27794. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  207. Strader C. D., Sigal I. S., Blake A. D., Cheung A. H., Register R. B., Rands E., Zemcik B. A., Candelore M. R., Dixon R. A. The carboxyl terminus of the hamster beta-adrenergic receptor expressed in mouse L cells is not required for receptor sequestration. Cell. 1987 Jun 19;49(6):855–863. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(87)90623-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  208. Söhlemann P., Hekman M., Puzicha M., Buchen C., Lohse M. J. Binding of purified recombinant beta-arrestin to guanine-nucleotide-binding-protein-coupled receptors. Eur J Biochem. 1995 Sep 1;232(2):464–472. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  209. Tan P. K., Davis N. G., Sprague G. F., Payne G. S. Clathrin facilitates the internalization of seven transmembrane segment receptors for mating pheromones in yeast. J Cell Biol. 1993 Dec;123(6 Pt 2):1707–1716. doi: 10.1083/jcb.123.6.1707. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  210. Tholanikunnel B. G., Granneman J. G., Malbon C. C. The M(r) 35,000 beta-adrenergic receptor mRNA-binding protein binds transcripts of G-protein-linked receptors which undergo agonist-induced destabilization. J Biol Chem. 1995 May 26;270(21):12787–12793. doi: 10.1074/jbc.270.21.12787. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  211. Thomas W. G., Baker K. M., Motel T. J., Thekkumkara T. J. Angiotensin II receptor endocytosis involves two distinct regions of the cytoplasmic tail. A role for residues on the hydrophobic face of a putative amphipathic helix. J Biol Chem. 1995 Sep 22;270(38):22153–22159. doi: 10.1074/jbc.270.38.22153. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  212. Thompson A. K., Fisher S. K. Relationship between agonist-induced muscarinic receptor loss and desensitization of stimulated phosphoinositide turnover in two neuroblastomas: methodological considerations. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1990 Feb;252(2):744–752. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  213. Tiberi M., Nash S. R., Bertrand L., Lefkowitz R. J., Caron M. G. Differential regulation of dopamine D1A receptor responsiveness by various G protein-coupled receptor kinases. J Biol Chem. 1996 Feb 16;271(7):3771–3778. doi: 10.1074/jbc.271.7.3771. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  214. Tobin A. B., Keys B., Nahorski S. R. Identification of a novel receptor kinase that phosphorylates a phospholipase C-linked muscarinic receptor. J Biol Chem. 1996 Feb 16;271(7):3907–3916. doi: 10.1074/jbc.271.7.3907. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  215. Trowbridge I. S., Collawn J. F., Hopkins C. R. Signal-dependent membrane protein trafficking in the endocytic pathway. Annu Rev Cell Biol. 1993;9:129–161. doi: 10.1146/annurev.cb.09.110193.001021. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  216. Tsuga H., Kameyama K., Haga T., Kurose H., Nagao T. Sequestration of muscarinic acetylcholine receptor m2 subtypes. Facilitation by G protein-coupled receptor kinase (GRK2) and attenuation by a dominant-negative mutant of GRK2. J Biol Chem. 1994 Dec 23;269(51):32522–32527. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  217. Turner A. J., Barnes K. Neuropeptidases: candidate enzymes and techniques for study. Biochem Soc Trans. 1994 Feb;22(1):122–127. doi: 10.1042/bst0220122. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  218. Valiquette M., Bonin H., Hnatowich M., Caron M. G., Lefkowitz R. J., Bouvier M. Involvement of tyrosine residues located in the carboxyl tail of the human beta 2-adrenergic receptor in agonist-induced down-regulation of the receptor. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1990 Jul;87(13):5089–5093. doi: 10.1073/pnas.87.13.5089. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  219. Wedegaertner P. B., Wilson P. T., Bourne H. R. Lipid modifications of trimeric G proteins. J Biol Chem. 1995 Jan 13;270(2):503–506. doi: 10.1074/jbc.270.2.503. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  220. White M. F., Kahn C. R. The insulin signaling system. J Biol Chem. 1994 Jan 7;269(1):1–4. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  221. Wilden U., Hall S. W., Kühn H. Phosphodiesterase activation by photoexcited rhodopsin is quenched when rhodopsin is phosphorylated and binds the intrinsic 48-kDa protein of rod outer segments. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1986 Mar;83(5):1174–1178. doi: 10.1073/pnas.83.5.1174. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  222. Wilkinson K. D. Roles of ubiquitinylation in proteolysis and cellular regulation. Annu Rev Nutr. 1995;15:161–189. doi: 10.1146/annurev.nu.15.070195.001113. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  223. Wilson C. J., Applebury M. L. Arresting G-protein coupled receptor activity. Curr Biol. 1993 Oct 1;3(10):683–686. doi: 10.1016/0960-9822(93)90068-y. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  224. Worrall D. M., Williams D. C. Sodium ion-dependent transporters for neurotransmitters: a review of recent developments. Biochem J. 1994 Feb 1;297(Pt 3):425–436. doi: 10.1042/bj2970425. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  225. Yeagle P. L., Alderfer J. L., Albert A. D. Structure of the carboxy-terminal domain of bovine rhodopsin. Nat Struct Biol. 1995 Oct;2(10):832–834. doi: 10.1038/nsb1095-832. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  226. Yu S. S., Lefkowitz R. J., Hausdorff W. P. Beta-adrenergic receptor sequestration. A potential mechanism of receptor resensitization. J Biol Chem. 1993 Jan 5;268(1):337–341. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  227. Zhang J., Ferguson S. S., Barak L. S., Ménard L., Caron M. G. Dynamin and beta-arrestin reveal distinct mechanisms for G protein-coupled receptor internalization. J Biol Chem. 1996 Aug 2;271(31):18302–18305. doi: 10.1074/jbc.271.31.18302. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  228. Zhang M., Turnbaugh D., Cofie D., Dogan S., Koshida H., Fugate R., Kem D. C. Protein kinase C modulation of cardiomyocyte angiotensin II and vasopressin receptor desensitization. Hypertension. 1996 Feb;27(2):269–275. doi: 10.1161/01.hyp.27.2.269. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  229. von Zastrow M., Kobilka B. K. Ligand-regulated internalization and recycling of human beta 2-adrenergic receptors between the plasma membrane and endosomes containing transferrin receptors. J Biol Chem. 1992 Feb 15;267(5):3530–3538. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]