Sculpting skin appendages out of epidermal layers via temporally and spatially regulated apoptotic events - PubMed (original) (raw)

Sculpting skin appendages out of epidermal layers via temporally and spatially regulated apoptotic events

Chung-Hsing Chang et al. J Invest Dermatol. 2004 Jun.

Abstract

Complex skin appendages are built from the epidermal cells through various cell events. Here we used TUNEL and caspase-3 immuno-localization to examine apoptosis in feather morphogenesis. We deduced three modes. In Mode 1A, apoptosis occurs within the localized growth zone (LoGZ) to regulate growth (feather buds). In Mode 1B, morphogen secreting cells are present adjacent to LoGZ and apoptosis may work to remove such signaling centers (barb ridges). In Mode 2, keratinocytes apoptosed before terminal differentiation and left spaces between branches (marginal plate). In Mode 3A, keratinocytes cornified and flaked off to free skin appendages (feather sheath, pulp epithelium). In Mode 3B, keratinized apoptosed epithelial cells became permanent structures (rachis, ramus, barbules). Thus, different apoptotic modes can have different impacts on morphogenesis. We further tested effects of imbalanced Shh on apoptosis. Shh suppression reduced marginal plate apoptosis and caused abnormal differentiation of barbule plates. Shh over-expression enhanced proliferation in barb ridges. Expression of Patched in the barbule plate epithelia implies a paracrine mechanism. The current work complements our recent work on LoGZ to show how adding and removing cell masses in temporally and spatially specific ways are coordinated to sculpt skin appendages from epidermal layers.

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Figures

Figure 1. Distribution of TUNEL+ cells in developing feather buds and follicles

(A) Schematic representation of longitudinal feather follicle sections. There are three epidermis layers in the feather filament: the basal layer, intermediate layer, and feather sheath. The feather filament surrounds the pulp and shows continuity with the invaginated epidermis that has become the feather sheath. (B) E 9 feather buds. (C) A section of E12 invaginating feather follicles. TUNEL+ cells in regions undergo active tissue remodeling. (D) At E15 a longitudinal section of a wing feather, TUNEL+ cells are detected in the feather sheath, higher magnification of the box area is shown in (_D_′). Strong TUNEL+ cells are detected in the feather sheath and dermal sheath, but the basal layer, demarcated by a black dotted line, lacks TUNEL+ cells. (E) At E16, a space is created between the feather follicle and dermal sheath, higher magnification of the box area is shown in (_E_′), TUNEL+ cells distribute along the separated and keratinized feather sheath and dermal sheath. A feather now can emerge from its sheath. bv, blood vessels; dp, dermal papilla; Fes, feather sheath; Fos, follicle sheath; rm, ramogenic zone. Scale bars, 100 μm (B-E), 50 μm (_D_′, _E_′).

Figure 2. Temporal and spatial sequence of apoptosis (TUNEL), cell proliferation (PCNA), differentiation (feather keratin), and signaling molecules expression (Shh) during feather filament branching morphogenesis

(A) Schematic drawing modified from Chuong and Edelman, 1985 to introduce the 5 stages of the barb ridge forming process (the blue numbers in parentheses). ap, axial plate. bp, barbule plate; bb, barbules. GZ, growth zone of barb ridge and in brown; mp, marginal plate and in red; rm, ramus; pe, pulp epithelium and in purple. Blue, ramus and barbules; green, intermediate layer; red, marginal plate. (B) Apoptosis is determined by TUNEL, proliferation by PCNA, Shh expression by in situ hybridization, and differentiation by feather keratin A transcript expression. E16 wing feather cross sections are used. All expressions were determined in a parallel temporal sequence. Stages of barb formation are indicated by blue brackets. Apoptosis appeared in the feather sheath, marginal plate, and later in the barbule plate and pulp epithelium. PCNA appeared first in the basal layer and barb ridge growth zone. Shh was in the marginal plate epithelium. Keratin A was expressed in the feather sheath, rachis, barbules, and also in the pulp epithelium. (C) Higher magnification views. TUNEL is negative in the basal cells surrounding the pulp and positive in the feather sheath (fes). PCNA stains the basal layer strongly and the intermediate layer weakly. As barb ridges form, TUNEL+ cells appeared in the marginal plates (mp) and axial plates (ap), beginning from cells closest to the feather sheath. At this stage, most of the barb ridge cells were strongly stained by PCNA, including the marginal plate and barbule plate. Later, cell proliferation was limited to the growth zone of the barb ridge, adjacent to the pulp. During later barbule plate differentiation, TUNEL+ cells were also detected in the keratinized barbule plate, beginning from the cells near the feather sheath. In the late barb ridge stage, barbule plates were fully differentiated, and TUNEL staining was present in the pulp epithelium. The rachis was last to undergo apoptosis compared to the barb ridges. TUNEL+ cells were detected in the medulla (m) rather than the cortex (c) region at this stage. These cells died, forming an air filled honeycomb structure. Finally, the pulp membrane became detached and the feather vane opened. Scale bars, 100 μm (panel B), 50 μm (panel C).

Figure 3. Molecular expression during barb ridge formation

Cross sections of E16 wing feather. (A) In situ hybridization with RNA anti-sense probe to Shh. Shh was expressed higher in the distal than the proximal marginal plate. (B) Patched-1 was expressed in the barbule plate. Ap, axial plate; bp, barbule plate; fes, feather sheath; mp, marginal plate; GZ, growth zone; pe, pulp epithelium. Bar, 50 μm. (_C, C_′) Immuno-staining of caspase-3. Low and high power views. Rectangular regions in C is shown in C′, Note the presence of caspase-3 staining in the pulp epithelium, marginal plate, feather sheath, and also begins to be seen in the axial plate. Staining in feather sheath will soon disappear as it develops earlier. Scale bars, 100 μm.

Figure 4. Shh influences apoptosis and proliferation during feather morphogenesis

Left column: Anti-Shh was achieved by injection of Shh inhibitor, RCAS antisense Shh or cyclopamine into the plucked wing feather pulp. Part of the cross section of a feather is shown. (A) Early barb ridge keratinocytes show abnormal cell types, but the periodicity still form. Abnormal marginal plate cells can be seen (*). (B) Some barbule plates (bp) differentiate, but some abnormal barbule plate cells (“bp”) start to degenerate. (C) PCNA. Inhibited proliferation in basal layer (bl) and intermediate layers (il) was seen by decreased intensity and number of PCNA + cells. (D) In some, there was reduced apoptosis in the presumptive marginal plate region (left). Apoptosis in the feather sheath can still be seen. In some regions, intermediate layer show the degenerative barbule plate epithelia (“bp” in panel B) underwent massive apoptosis (right). Caspase-3 staining is remarkably reduced (E). Right column: Shh over expression. (_A_′) Cross sections showed ectopic Shh expression caused an abnormal, enlarged growth zone (“GZ”) and an abnormal expanded cell column between the two barbule plates (yellow dotted line). (_B_′) In more mature regions, the expanded growth zones contributed to the enlarged rami formation. The barb septa and pulp epithelium also were expanded. (_C_′) PCNA showed expanded cell proliferation beyond the growth zone to the peripheral barbule plate epithelia, marginal plate, and the peripheral axial regions that normally do not have proliferating cells at this stage. (_D_′) Apoptosis was suppressed (not shown) leading to expanded cell mass. (_E_′) Caspase-3 immuno-staining is mildly reduced but remained in the axial plate and pulp epithelium. Scale bars, 100μm.

Figure 5. Schematic drawing of the modes of apoptosis and the morphogenetic consequences on skin appendage morphogenesis

(A) Temporal - spatial modes of apoptosis relative to cell proliferation and differentiation highlighting different morphogenetic consequences. Mode 1. Apoptosis in the proliferative zone. These cells may be involved via apoptosis by themselves (1_A_) or by signaling others to apoptose or not to apoptose (1_B_). Mode 2. Apoptosis without keratinization. This leaves spaces important for morphogenesis. Mode 3. Apoptosis with terminal differentiation. Depending on specific types of keratinization, these cells may cornify and flake off to separate epidermal layers (3_A_) or become permanent keratinized structures (3_B_). (B) Different modes of apoptosis leave distinct consequences on epithelial morphogenesis. Examples are shown in developing skin appendage primordia, invaginating follicles and branching feathers. Cross sections at different levels of feather filaments from the proximal to the distal end (a to d) are shown in the bottom row. Diagrams a-d are modified from Fig. 238, Lucas and Stettenheim, 1972. Note the dynamic shift of localized apoptotic zones in different stages of skin appendage development, and how these successive apoptotic events sculpt the epidermal cylinder into highly branched structures and set the feathers free to fly. Hence, apoptosis gives life in death.

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Sculpting skin appendages out of epidermal layers via temporally and spatially regulated apoptotic events - PubMed (original) (raw)