Psychological therapies for chronic post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in adults - PubMed (original) (raw)

Review

Psychological therapies for chronic post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in adults

Jonathan I Bisson et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013.

Abstract

Background: Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a distressing condition, which is often treated with psychological therapies. Earlier versions of this review, and other meta-analyses, have found these to be effective, with trauma-focused treatments being more effective than non-trauma-focused treatments. This is an update of a Cochrane review first published in 2005 and updated in 2007.

Objectives: To assess the effects of psychological therapies for the treatment of adults with chronic post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

Search methods: For this update, we searched the Cochrane Depression, Anxiety and Neurosis Group's Specialised Register (CCDANCTR-Studies and CCDANCTR-References) all years to 12th April 2013. This register contains relevant randomised controlled trials from: The Cochrane Library (all years), MEDLINE (1950 to date), EMBASE (1974 to date), and PsycINFO (1967 to date). In addition, we handsearched the Journal of Traumatic Stress, contacted experts in the field, searched bibliographies of included studies, and performed citation searches of identified articles.

Selection criteria: Randomised controlled trials of individual trauma-focused cognitive behavioural therapy (TFCBT), eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing (EMDR), non-trauma-focused CBT (non-TFCBT), other therapies (supportive therapy, non-directive counselling, psychodynamic therapy and present-centred therapy), group TFCBT, or group non-TFCBT, compared to one another or to a waitlist or usual care group for the treatment of chronic PTSD. The primary outcome measure was the severity of clinician-rated traumatic-stress symptoms.

Data collection and analysis: We extracted data and entered them into Review Manager 5 software. We contacted authors to obtain missing data. Two review authors independently performed 'Risk of bias' assessments. We pooled the data where appropriate, and analysed for summary effects.

Main results: We include 70 studies involving a total of 4761 participants in the review. The first primary outcome for this review was reduction in the severity of PTSD symptoms, using a standardised measure rated by a clinician. For this outcome, individual TFCBT and EMDR were more effective than waitlist/usual care (standardised mean difference (SMD) -1.62; 95% CI -2.03 to -1.21; 28 studies; n = 1256 and SMD -1.17; 95% CI -2.04 to -0.30; 6 studies; n = 183 respectively). There was no statistically significant difference between individual TFCBT, EMDR and Stress Management (SM) immediately post-treatment although there was some evidence that individual TFCBT and EMDR were superior to non-TFCBT at follow-up, and that individual TFCBT, EMDR and non-TFCBT were more effective than other therapies. Non-TFCBT was more effective than waitlist/usual care and other therapies. Other therapies were superior to waitlist/usual care control as was group TFCBT. There was some evidence of greater drop-out (the second primary outcome for this review) in active treatment groups. Many of the studies were rated as being at 'high' or 'unclear' risk of bias in multiple domains, and there was considerable unexplained heterogeneity; in addition, we assessed the quality of the evidence for each comparison as very low. As such, the findings of this review should be interpreted with caution.

Authors' conclusions: The evidence for each of the comparisons made in this review was assessed as very low quality. This evidence showed that individual TFCBT and EMDR did better than waitlist/usual care in reducing clinician-assessed PTSD symptoms. There was evidence that individual TFCBT, EMDR and non-TFCBT are equally effective immediately post-treatment in the treatment of PTSD. There was some evidence that TFCBT and EMDR are superior to non-TFCBT between one to four months following treatment, and also that individual TFCBT, EMDR and non-TFCBT are more effective than other therapies. There was evidence of greater drop-out in active treatment groups. Although a substantial number of studies were included in the review, the conclusions are compromised by methodological issues evident in some. Sample sizes were small, and it is apparent that many of the studies were underpowered. There were limited follow-up data, which compromises conclusions regarding the long-term effects of psychological treatment.

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Conflict of interest statement

None known.

Figures

1

1

Study flow diagram.

2

2

Risk of bias graph: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item presented as percentages across all included studies.

3

3

Risk of bias summary: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item for each included study.

4

4

Funnel plot of comparison: 1 Individual trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure therapy vs waitlist/usual care, outcome: 3.1 Severity of PTSD symptoms ‐ clinician‐rated.

5

5

Funnel plot of comparison: 3 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure Therapy vs other therapies, outcome: 3.1 Severity of PTSD symptoms ‐ clinician‐rated.

6

6

Funnel plot of comparison: 1 Individual trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure therapy vs waitlist/usual care, outcome: 1.7 PTSD diagnosis after treatment.

1.1

1.1. Analysis

Comparison 1 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure therapy vs waitlist/usual care, Outcome 1 Severity of PTSD symptoms ‐ clinician.

1.2

1.2. Analysis

Comparison 1 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure therapy vs waitlist/usual care, Outcome 2 Severity of PTSD symptoms at 1 ‐ 4 month follow‐up.

1.3

1.3. Analysis

Comparison 1 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure therapy vs waitlist/usual care, Outcome 3 Severity of PTSD symptoms at 5 ‐ 8 month follow‐up..

1.4

1.4. Analysis

Comparison 1 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure therapy vs waitlist/usual care, Outcome 4 Severity of PTSD symptoms 9 ‐ 12 month follow‐up.

1.5

1.5. Analysis

Comparison 1 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure therapy vs waitlist/usual care, Outcome 5 Leaving the study early for any reason.

1.6

1.6. Analysis

Comparison 1 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure therapy vs waitlist/usual care, Outcome 6 Severity of PTSD symptoms ‐ self report: 1 ‐ 4 month follow‐up.

1.7

1.7. Analysis

Comparison 1 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure therapy vs waitlist/usual care, Outcome 7 Severity of PTSD symptoms ‐ self report: 5 ‐ 8 months).

1.8

1.8. Analysis

Comparison 1 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure therapy vs waitlist/usual care, Outcome 8 Severity of PTSD symptoms ‐ self report: 9 ‐ 12 month follow up.

1.9

1.9. Analysis

Comparison 1 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure therapy vs waitlist/usual care, Outcome 9 Depression.

1.10

1.10. Analysis

Comparison 1 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure therapy vs waitlist/usual care, Outcome 10 Depression 1 ‐ 4 month follow‐up.

1.11

1.11. Analysis

Comparison 1 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure therapy vs waitlist/usual care, Outcome 11 Depression 5 ‐ 8 month follow‐up.

1.12

1.12. Analysis

Comparison 1 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure therapy vs waitlist/usual care, Outcome 12 Depression 9 ‐ 12 month follow‐up.

1.13

1.13. Analysis

Comparison 1 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure therapy vs waitlist/usual care, Outcome 13 Anxiety.

1.14

1.14. Analysis

Comparison 1 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure therapy vs waitlist/usual care, Outcome 14 Anxiety 1 ‐ 4 month follow‐up.

1.15

1.15. Analysis

Comparison 1 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure therapy vs waitlist/usual care, Outcome 15 Anxiety 9 ‐ 12 month follow‐up.

1.16

1.16. Analysis

Comparison 1 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure therapy vs waitlist/usual care, Outcome 16 Exploration of publication bias.

1.17

1.17. Analysis

Comparison 1 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure therapy vs waitlist/usual care, Outcome 17 Sensitivity analysis ‐ clinician‐rated PTSD symptoms ‐ studies at low risk of bias only.

1.18

1.18. Analysis

Comparison 1 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure therapy vs waitlist/usual care, Outcome 18 PTSD diagnosis after treatment.

2.1

2.1. Analysis

Comparison 2 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure therapy vs non‐TFCBT, Outcome 1 Severity of PTSD Symptoms ‐ clinician.

2.2

2.2. Analysis

Comparison 2 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure therapy vs non‐TFCBT, Outcome 2 Severity of PTSD symptoms ‐ clinician ‐ follow‐up (1 ‐ 4 months).

2.3

2.3. Analysis

Comparison 2 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure therapy vs non‐TFCBT, Outcome 3 Severity of PTSD symptoms ‐ clinician ‐ follow‐up (5 ‐ 8 months).

2.4

2.4. Analysis

Comparison 2 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure therapy vs non‐TFCBT, Outcome 4 Severity of PTSD symptoms ‐ clinician ‐ follow‐up (9 ‐ 12 months).

2.5

2.5. Analysis

Comparison 2 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure therapy vs non‐TFCBT, Outcome 5 Leaving the study early for any reason.

2.6

2.6. Analysis

Comparison 2 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure therapy vs non‐TFCBT, Outcome 6 Severity of PTSD symptoms ‐ self report.

2.7

2.7. Analysis

Comparison 2 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure therapy vs non‐TFCBT, Outcome 7 Severity of PTSD symptoms ‐ self report ‐ follow‐up (1‐4 months).

2.8

2.8. Analysis

Comparison 2 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure therapy vs non‐TFCBT, Outcome 8 Depression.

2.9

2.9. Analysis

Comparison 2 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure therapy vs non‐TFCBT, Outcome 9 Depression ‐ follow‐up (1 ‐ 4 months).

2.10

2.10. Analysis

Comparison 2 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure therapy vs non‐TFCBT, Outcome 10 Depression ‐ follow‐up (5 ‐ 8 months).

2.11

2.11. Analysis

Comparison 2 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure therapy vs non‐TFCBT, Outcome 11 Depression ‐ follow‐up (9 ‐ 12 months).

2.12

2.12. Analysis

Comparison 2 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure therapy vs non‐TFCBT, Outcome 12 Anxiety.

2.13

2.13. Analysis

Comparison 2 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure therapy vs non‐TFCBT, Outcome 13 Anxiety ‐ follow‐up (1 ‐ 4 months).

2.14

2.14. Analysis

Comparison 2 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure therapy vs non‐TFCBT, Outcome 14 Anxiety ‐ follow‐up (5 ‐ 8 months).

2.15

2.15. Analysis

Comparison 2 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure therapy vs non‐TFCBT, Outcome 15 Anxiety ‐ follow‐up (9 ‐ 12 months).

2.16

2.16. Analysis

Comparison 2 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure therapy vs non‐TFCBT, Outcome 16 PTSD diagnosis after treatment.

3.1

3.1. Analysis

Comparison 3 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure Therapy vs other therapies, Outcome 1 Severity of PTSD symptoms ‐ clinician.

3.2

3.2. Analysis

Comparison 3 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure Therapy vs other therapies, Outcome 2 Severity of PTSD symptoms ‐ clinician ‐ 1 ‐ 4 month follow‐up.

3.3

3.3. Analysis

Comparison 3 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure Therapy vs other therapies, Outcome 3 Severity of PTSD symptoms ‐ clinician ‐ 5 ‐ 8 month follow‐up.

3.4

3.4. Analysis

Comparison 3 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure Therapy vs other therapies, Outcome 4 Severity of PTSD symptoms ‐ clinician ‐ 9 ‐ 12 month follow‐up.

3.5

3.5. Analysis

Comparison 3 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure Therapy vs other therapies, Outcome 5 Leaving the study early for any reason.

3.6

3.6. Analysis

Comparison 3 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure Therapy vs other therapies, Outcome 6 Severity of PTSD symptoms ‐ self report.

3.7

3.7. Analysis

Comparison 3 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure Therapy vs other therapies, Outcome 7 Severity of PTSD symptoms ‐ self report ‐ follow‐up (1 ‐ 4 months).

3.8

3.8. Analysis

Comparison 3 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure Therapy vs other therapies, Outcome 8 Severity of PTSD symptoms ‐ self‐report ‐ follow‐up (5 ‐ 8 months).

3.9

3.9. Analysis

Comparison 3 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure Therapy vs other therapies, Outcome 9 Severity of PTSD symptoms ‐ self‐report ‐ follow‐up (9 ‐ 12 months).

3.10

3.10. Analysis

Comparison 3 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure Therapy vs other therapies, Outcome 10 Depression ‐ self report.

3.11

3.11. Analysis

Comparison 3 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure Therapy vs other therapies, Outcome 11 Depression ‐ self‐report ‐ follow‐up (1‐4 months).

3.12

3.12. Analysis

Comparison 3 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure Therapy vs other therapies, Outcome 12 Depression ‐ follow‐up (5‐8 months).

3.13

3.13. Analysis

Comparison 3 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure Therapy vs other therapies, Outcome 13 Depression 9‐12 month follow up.

3.14

3.14. Analysis

Comparison 3 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure Therapy vs other therapies, Outcome 14 Anxiety ‐ self report.

3.15

3.15. Analysis

Comparison 3 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure Therapy vs other therapies, Outcome 15 Anxiety ‐ self‐report ‐ follow‐up (1 ‐ 4 months).

3.16

3.16. Analysis

Comparison 3 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure Therapy vs other therapies, Outcome 16 Anxiety ‐ follow‐up (5 ‐ 8 months).

3.17

3.17. Analysis

Comparison 3 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure Therapy vs other therapies, Outcome 17 PTSD diagnosis after treatment.

3.18

3.18. Analysis

Comparison 3 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure Therapy vs other therapies, Outcome 18 Severity of PTSD symptoms ‐ clinician ‐ 13‐24 month follow‐up.

3.19

3.19. Analysis

Comparison 3 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure Therapy vs other therapies, Outcome 19 Sensitivity analysis ‐ PTSD symptoms ‐ studies at low risk of bias only.

3.20

3.20. Analysis

Comparison 3 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure Therapy vs other therapies, Outcome 20 Sensitivity analysis ‐ drop‐out ‐ studies at low risk of bias only.

3.21

3.21. Analysis

Comparison 3 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure Therapy vs other therapies, Outcome 21 Subgroup analysis: severity of PTSD symptoms ‐ women‐only studies.

3.22

3.22. Analysis

Comparison 3 Trauma‐focused CBT/Exposure Therapy vs other therapies, Outcome 22 Subgroup analysis: severity of PTSD symptoms ‐ clinician ‐ excluding Vietnam veterans.

4.1

4.1. Analysis

Comparison 4 EMDR vs waitlist/usual care, Outcome 1 Severity of PTSD symptoms ‐ Clinician.

4.2

4.2. Analysis

Comparison 4 EMDR vs waitlist/usual care, Outcome 2 Leaving study early due to any reason.

4.3

4.3. Analysis

Comparison 4 EMDR vs waitlist/usual care, Outcome 3 Severity of PTSD symptoms ‐ self report.

4.4

4.4. Analysis

Comparison 4 EMDR vs waitlist/usual care, Outcome 4 Depression.

4.5

4.5. Analysis

Comparison 4 EMDR vs waitlist/usual care, Outcome 5 Anxiety.

4.6

4.6. Analysis

Comparison 4 EMDR vs waitlist/usual care, Outcome 6 PTSD diagnosis after treatment.

5.1

5.1. Analysis

Comparison 5 EMDR vs Trauma‐focused CBT, Outcome 1 Severity of PTSD symptoms ‐ clinician.

5.2

5.2. Analysis

Comparison 5 EMDR vs Trauma‐focused CBT, Outcome 2 Severity of PTSD symptoms ‐ clinician ‐ follow‐up (1 ‐ 4 months).

5.3

5.3. Analysis

Comparison 5 EMDR vs Trauma‐focused CBT, Outcome 3 Leaving study early for any reason.

5.4

5.4. Analysis

Comparison 5 EMDR vs Trauma‐focused CBT, Outcome 4 Severity of PTSD symptoms ‐ self report.

5.5

5.5. Analysis

Comparison 5 EMDR vs Trauma‐focused CBT, Outcome 5 Severity of PTSD symptoms ‐ self‐report ‐ follow‐up (1 ‐ 4 months).

5.6

5.6. Analysis

Comparison 5 EMDR vs Trauma‐focused CBT, Outcome 6 Depression.

5.7

5.7. Analysis

Comparison 5 EMDR vs Trauma‐focused CBT, Outcome 7 Depression ‐ follow‐up (1 ‐ 4 months).

5.8

5.8. Analysis

Comparison 5 EMDR vs Trauma‐focused CBT, Outcome 8 Anxiety.

5.9

5.9. Analysis

Comparison 5 EMDR vs Trauma‐focused CBT, Outcome 9 Anxiety ‐ follow‐up (1 ‐ 4 months).

5.10

5.10. Analysis

Comparison 5 EMDR vs Trauma‐focused CBT, Outcome 10 PTSD diagnosis after treatment.

6.1

6.1. Analysis

Comparison 6 EMDR vs non‐TFCBT, Outcome 1 Severity of PTSD symptoms ‐ clinician.

6.2

6.2. Analysis

Comparison 6 EMDR vs non‐TFCBT, Outcome 2 Severity of PTSD symptoms ‐ clinician ‐ follow‐up (1‐4 months).

6.3

6.3. Analysis

Comparison 6 EMDR vs non‐TFCBT, Outcome 3 Leaving the study early for any reason.

6.4

6.4. Analysis

Comparison 6 EMDR vs non‐TFCBT, Outcome 4 Severity of PTSD symptoms ‐ self report.

6.5

6.5. Analysis

Comparison 6 EMDR vs non‐TFCBT, Outcome 5 Severity of PTSD symptoms ‐ self‐report ‐ follow‐up (1 ‐ 4 months).

6.6

6.6. Analysis

Comparison 6 EMDR vs non‐TFCBT, Outcome 6 Depression.

6.7

6.7. Analysis

Comparison 6 EMDR vs non‐TFCBT, Outcome 7 Depression ‐ follow‐up (1 ‐ 4 months).

6.8

6.8. Analysis

Comparison 6 EMDR vs non‐TFCBT, Outcome 8 Anxiety.

6.9

6.9. Analysis

Comparison 6 EMDR vs non‐TFCBT, Outcome 9 Anxiety ‐ follow‐up (1 ‐ 4 months).

6.10

6.10. Analysis

Comparison 6 EMDR vs non‐TFCBT, Outcome 10 PTSD diagnosis after treatment.

7.1

7.1. Analysis

Comparison 7 EMDR vs other therapies, Outcome 1 Leaving study early for any reason.

7.2

7.2. Analysis

Comparison 7 EMDR vs other therapies, Outcome 2 Severity of PTSD symptoms ‐ self report.

7.3

7.3. Analysis

Comparison 7 EMDR vs other therapies, Outcome 3 Depression.

7.4

7.4. Analysis

Comparison 7 EMDR vs other therapies, Outcome 4 Anxiety.

7.5

7.5. Analysis

Comparison 7 EMDR vs other therapies, Outcome 5 PTSD diagnosis after treatment.

8.1

8.1. Analysis

Comparison 8 Non‐TFCBT vs waitlist/usual care, Outcome 1 Severity of PTSD symptoms ‐ Clinician.

8.2

8.2. Analysis

Comparison 8 Non‐TFCBT vs waitlist/usual care, Outcome 2 Leaving the study early for any reason.

8.3

8.3. Analysis

Comparison 8 Non‐TFCBT vs waitlist/usual care, Outcome 3 Severity of PTSD symptoms ‐ Self‐report.

8.4

8.4. Analysis

Comparison 8 Non‐TFCBT vs waitlist/usual care, Outcome 4 Depression.

8.5

8.5. Analysis

Comparison 8 Non‐TFCBT vs waitlist/usual care, Outcome 5 Anxiety.

8.6

8.6. Analysis

Comparison 8 Non‐TFCBT vs waitlist/usual care, Outcome 6 PTSD diagnosis after treatment.

9.1

9.1. Analysis

Comparison 9 Non‐TFCBT vs other therapies, Outcome 1 Severity of PTSD symptoms ‐ Clincian.

9.2

9.2. Analysis

Comparison 9 Non‐TFCBT vs other therapies, Outcome 2 Severity of PTSD symptoms ‐ clinician ‐ follow‐up (3 months).

9.3

9.3. Analysis

Comparison 9 Non‐TFCBT vs other therapies, Outcome 3 Leaving the study early for any reason.

9.4

9.4. Analysis

Comparison 9 Non‐TFCBT vs other therapies, Outcome 4 Depression ‐ self report.

9.5

9.5. Analysis

Comparison 9 Non‐TFCBT vs other therapies, Outcome 5 Depression ‐ self report ‐ follow‐up (3 months).

9.6

9.6. Analysis

Comparison 9 Non‐TFCBT vs other therapies, Outcome 6 Anxiety ‐ self report.

9.7

9.7. Analysis

Comparison 9 Non‐TFCBT vs other therapies, Outcome 7 Anxiety ‐ self report ‐ follow‐up (3 months).

9.8

9.8. Analysis

Comparison 9 Non‐TFCBT vs other therapies, Outcome 8 PTSD diagnosis after treatment.

10.1

10.1. Analysis

Comparison 10 Group TFCBT vs waitlist/usual care/minimal contact, Outcome 1 Clinician‐rated.

10.2

10.2. Analysis

Comparison 10 Group TFCBT vs waitlist/usual care/minimal contact, Outcome 2 Severity of PTSD 5 ‐ 8 month follow‐up.

10.3

10.3. Analysis

Comparison 10 Group TFCBT vs waitlist/usual care/minimal contact, Outcome 3 Leaving the study early for any reason.

10.4

10.4. Analysis

Comparison 10 Group TFCBT vs waitlist/usual care/minimal contact, Outcome 4 Severity of PTSD symptoms ‐ self report.

10.5

10.5. Analysis

Comparison 10 Group TFCBT vs waitlist/usual care/minimal contact, Outcome 5 Severity of PTSD ‐ self report ‐ 1 ‐ 4 months.

10.6

10.6. Analysis

Comparison 10 Group TFCBT vs waitlist/usual care/minimal contact, Outcome 6 Depression.

10.7

10.7. Analysis

Comparison 10 Group TFCBT vs waitlist/usual care/minimal contact, Outcome 7 Depression 1 ‐ 4 month follow‐up.

10.8

10.8. Analysis

Comparison 10 Group TFCBT vs waitlist/usual care/minimal contact, Outcome 8 Anxiety.

10.9

10.9. Analysis

Comparison 10 Group TFCBT vs waitlist/usual care/minimal contact, Outcome 9 Anxiety 1 ‐ 4 month follow‐up.

10.10

10.10. Analysis

Comparison 10 Group TFCBT vs waitlist/usual care/minimal contact, Outcome 10 PTSD diagnosis after treatment.

11.1

11.1. Analysis

Comparison 11 Group CBT (trauma‐focused) vs Group CBT (non‐trauma‐focused), Outcome 1 Severity of PTSD symptoms.

11.2

11.2. Analysis

Comparison 11 Group CBT (trauma‐focused) vs Group CBT (non‐trauma‐focused), Outcome 2 Leaving the study early for any reason.

11.3

11.3. Analysis

Comparison 11 Group CBT (trauma‐focused) vs Group CBT (non‐trauma‐focused), Outcome 3 PTSD diagnosis after treatment.

12.1

12.1. Analysis

Comparison 12 Other therapies vs waitlist/usual care, Outcome 1 Severity of PTSD symptoms ‐ clinician.

12.2

12.2. Analysis

Comparison 12 Other therapies vs waitlist/usual care, Outcome 2 Leaving the study early due to any reason.

12.3

12.3. Analysis

Comparison 12 Other therapies vs waitlist/usual care, Outcome 3 Severity of PTSD symptoms ‐ self report.

12.4

12.4. Analysis

Comparison 12 Other therapies vs waitlist/usual care, Outcome 4 Depression.

12.5

12.5. Analysis

Comparison 12 Other therapies vs waitlist/usual care, Outcome 5 Anxiety ‐ Self report.

12.6

12.6. Analysis

Comparison 12 Other therapies vs waitlist/usual care, Outcome 6 PTSD diagnosis after treatment.

13.1

13.1. Analysis

Comparison 13 Group non‐TFCBT vs waitlist/usual care, Outcome 1 Leaving the study early for any reason.

13.2

13.2. Analysis

Comparison 13 Group non‐TFCBT vs waitlist/usual care, Outcome 2 Severity of PTSD symptoms ‐ self report.

13.3

13.3. Analysis

Comparison 13 Group non‐TFCBT vs waitlist/usual care, Outcome 3 Severity of PTSD symptoms ‐ self report 1 ‐ 4 months.

13.4

13.4. Analysis

Comparison 13 Group non‐TFCBT vs waitlist/usual care, Outcome 4 Depression.

13.5

13.5. Analysis

Comparison 13 Group non‐TFCBT vs waitlist/usual care, Outcome 5 Depression ‐ 1 ‐ 4 months.

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Cooper 1989 {published data only}
    1. Cooper NA, Clum GA. Imaginal flooding as a supplementary treatment for PTSD in combat veterans: a controlled study. Behavior Therapy 1989;20(3):381‐91.
Devilly 1998 {published data only}
    1. Devilly GJ, Spence SH, Rapee RM. Statistical and reliable change with eye movement desensitization and reprocessing: treating trauma within a veteran population. Behavior Therapy 1998;29(3):435‐55.
Devilly 1999 {published data only}
    1. Devilly GJ. The successful treatment of PTSD through overt cognitive behavioral therapy in non‐responders to EMDR. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy 2001;29(1):57‐70.
    1. Devilly GJ, Spence SH. The relative efficacy and treatment distress of EMDR and a cognitive‐behavior trauma treatment protocol in the amelioration of posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 1999;13(1‐2):131‐57. - PubMed
Duffy 2007 {published data only}
    1. Duffy M, Gillespie K, Clark DM. Cognitive therapy for post‐traumatic stress disorder in the context of terrorism and other civil conflict in Northern Ireland. Proceedings of the 34th Annual Conference of the British Association for Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapies; 2006 Jul 19 ‐ 21, Warwick. 2006:44.
    1. Duffy M, Gillespie K, Clark DM. Post‐traumatic stress disorder in the context of terrorism and other civil conflict in Northern Ireland: Randomised Controlled Trial. BMJ 2007;334(7604):1147‐50. - PMC - PubMed
Dunne 2012 {published data only}
    1. Dunne RL, Kenardy J, Sterling M. A randomized controlled trial of cognitive behavioural therapy for the treatment of PTSD in the context of chronic whiplash. Clinical Journal of Pain 2012;28(9):755‐65. - PubMed
Echeburua 1997 {published data only}
    1. Echeburua E, Corral P, Zubizarreta I, Sarasua B. Psychological treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder in victims of sexual aggression. Behavior Modification 1997;21(4):433‐56. - PubMed
Ehlers 2003 {published data only}
    1. Ehlers A, Clark DM, Hackmann A, McManus F, Fennell M, Herbert C, et al. A randomised controlled trial of cognitive therapy, a self help booklet, and repeated assessments as early interventions for posttraumatic stress disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry 2003;60(10):1024‐32. - PubMed
Ehlers 2005 {published data only}
    1. Ehlers A, Clark DM, Hackmann A, McManus F, Fennell M. Cognitive therapy for post‐traumatic stress disorder: development and evaluation. Behaviour Research and Therapy 2005;43(4):413‐31. - PubMed
Fecteau 1999 {published data only}
    1. Fecteau G, Nicki R. Cognitive behavioural treatment of post traumatic stress disorder after motor vehicle accident. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy 1999;27(3):201‐14.
    1. Fecteau GW. Treatment of posttraumatic stress reactions to traffic accidents [thesis]. Dissertation Abstracts International 2000;61(1‐B):527.
Feske 2008 {published data only}
    1. Feske, U. Treating low income and minority women with post traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 2008;23(8):1027‐40. - PubMed
Foa 1991 {published data only}
    1. Foa EB, Rothbaum BO, Riggs DS, Murdock TB. Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder in rape victims: a comparison between cognitive‐behavioral procedures and counselling. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1991;59(5):715‐23. - PubMed
Foa 1999 {published data only}
    1. Foa EB, Dancu CV, Hembree EA, Jaycox LH, Meadows EA, Street GP. A comparison of exposure therapy, stress inoculation training, and their combination for reducing posttraumatic stress disorder in female assault victims. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1999;67(2):194‐200. - PubMed
    1. Zoellner LA, Feeny NC, Fitzgibbons LA, Foa EB. Response of African American and caucasian women to cognitive behavioral therapy for PTSD. Behavior Therapy 1999;30(4):581‐95.
Foa 2005 {published data only}
    1. Foa EB, Hembree EA, Cahill SP, Rauch SAM, Riggs DS. Randomized trial of prolonged exposure for posttraumatic stress disorder with and without cognitive restructuring: Outcome at academic and community clinics. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2005;73(5):953‐64. - PubMed
Forbes 2012 {published data only}
    1. Forbes D, Lloyd D, Nixon RD, Elliott P, Varker T, Perry D, et al. A multisite randomized controlled effectiveness trail of cognitive processing therapy for military‐related post traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 2012;26(3):442‐452. - PubMed
Galovski 2012 {published data only}
    1. Galovski T, Blain LM, Mott JM, Elwood L, Houle T. Manualized therapy for PTSD: flexing the structure of cognitive processing therapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2012;80(6):968‐81. - PMC - PubMed
Gamito 2010 {published data only}
    1. Gamito P, Oliveira J, Rosa P, Morais D, Duarte N, Oliveira S, et al. PTSD elderly war veterans: a clinical controlled pilot study. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking 2010;13(1):43‐8. - PubMed
Gersons 2000 {published data only}
    1. Gersons BP, Carlier IV, Lamberts RD, Kolk BA. Randomized clinical trial of brief eclectic psychotherapy for police officers with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress 2000;13(2):333‐47. - PubMed
Hensel‐Dittmann 2011 {published data only}
    1. Hensel‐Dittmann D, Schauer M, Ruf M, Catani C, Odenwald M, Elbert T, et al. Treatment of traumatized victims of war and torture: A randomized controlled comparison of narrative exposure therapy and stress innoculation therapy. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics 2011;80(6):345‐52. - PubMed
Hinton 2005 {published data only}
    1. Hinton DE, Chhean D, Pich V, Safren SA, Hofmann SG, Pollack MH. A randomised controlled trial of cognitive behaviour therapy for Cambodian refugees with treatment resistant PTSD and panic attacks: a cross over design. Journal of Traumatic Stress 2005;18(6):617‐29. - PubMed
    1. Hinton DE, Hofmann SG, Pollack MH, Otto MW. Mechanisms of efficacy of CBT for Cambodian refugees with PTSD: improvement in emotion regulation and orthostatic blood pressure response. CNS Neuroscience and Therapeutics 2009;15(3):255‐63. - PMC - PubMed
Hinton 2011 {published data only}
    1. Hinton DE, Hofmann SG, Rivera E, Otto MW, Pollack MH. Culturally adapted CBT (CA‐CBT) for Latino women with treatment‐resistant PTSD: A pilot study comparing CA‐CBT to applied muscle relaxation. Behaviour Research and Therapy 2011;49(4):275‐80. - PubMed
Hogberg 2007 {published data only}
    1. Hogberg G, Pagani M, Sundin O, Soares J, Aberg‐Wistedt A, Tarnell B, et al. On treatment with eye movement desensitization and reprocessing of chronic post‐traumatic stress disorder in public transportation workers ‐ a randomized controlled trial. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry 2007;61(1):54‐60. - PubMed
Hollifield 2007 {published data only}
    1. Hollifield M, Sinclair‐Lian N, Warner TD, Hammerschlag R. Acupuncture for posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 2010;195(6):504‐13. - PubMed
Ironson 2002 {published data only}
    1. Ironson G, Freund B, Strauss JL, Williams J. Comparison of two treatments for traumatic stress: a community based study of EMDR and prolonged exposure. Journal of Clinical Psychology 2002;58(1):113‐28. - PubMed
Jensen 1994 {published data only}
    1. Jensen JA. An investigation of eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing as a treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms of Vietnam combat veterans. Behavior Therapy 1994;25(2):311‐25.
Keane 1989 {published data only}
    1. Keane TM, Fairbank JA, Caddell JM, Zimering RT. Implosive (flooding) therapy reduces symptoms of PTSD in Vietnam combat veterans. Behavior Therapy 1989;20(2):245‐60.
Kearney 2013 {published data only}
    1. Kearney DJ, McDermott K, Malte C, Martinez M, Simpson TL. Effects of participation in a mindfulness program for veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder: a randomised controlled trial. Journal of Clinical Psychology 2013;69(1):14‐27. - PubMed
Krakow 2000 {published data only}
    1. Krakow B, Hollifield M, Schrader R, Koss M, Tandberg D, Lauriello J, et al. A controlled study of imagery rehearsal for chronic nightmares in sexual assault survivors with PTSD: A preliminary report. Journal of Traumatic Stress 2000;13(4):589‐609. - PubMed
Krakow 2001 {published data only}
    1. Krakow B, Hollifield M, Johnston L, Koss M, Schrader R, Warner TD, et al. Imagery rehearsal therapy for chronic nightmares in sexual assault survivors with posttraumatic stress disorder. A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2001;286(5):537‐45. - PubMed
Kubany 2003 {published data only}
    1. Kubany ES, Hill EE, Owens JA. Cognitive trauma therapy for battered women with PTSD: preliminary findings. Journal of Traumatic Stress 2003;16(1):81‐91. - PubMed
Kubany 2004 {published data only}
    1. Kubany ES, Hill EE, Owens JA. Cognitive trauma therapy for battered women with PTSD (CTT‐BW). Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2004;72(1):3‐18. - PubMed
Lee 2002 {published data only}
    1. Lee C, Gavriel H, Drummond P, Richards J, Greenwald R. Treatment of PTSD: stress inoculation training with prolonged exposure compared to EMDR. Journal of Clinical Psychology 2002;58(9):1071‐89. - PubMed
Lindauer 2005 {published data only}
    1. Lindauer JL, Gersons BPR, Meijel EPM, Blom K, Carlier IVE, Vrijlandt I, et al. Effects of brief eclectic psychotherapy in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder: randomised clinical trial. Journal of Traumatic Stress 2005;18(3):205‐12. - PubMed
Marcus 1997 {published data only}
    1. Marcus S, Marquis P, Sakai C. Three and 6 month follow up of EMDR treatment of PTSD in an HMO setting. International Journal of Stress Management 2004;11(3):195‐208.
    1. Marcus SV, Marquis P, Sakai C. Controlled study of treatment of PTSD using EMDR in an HMO setting. Psychotherapy 1997;34(3):307‐15.
Marks 1998 {published data only}
    1. Marks I, Lovell K, Noshirvani H, Livanou M, Thrasher S. Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder by exposure and/or cognitive restructuring: a controlled study. Archives of General Psychiatry 1998;55(4):317‐25. - PubMed
    1. Thrasher S, Power M, Morant N, Marks I, Dalgleish T. Social support moderates outcome in a randomized controlled trial of exposure therapy and (or) cognitive restructuring for chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 2010;55(3):187‐90. - PubMed
McDonagh 2005 {published data only}
    1. McDonagh A, Friedman M, McHugo G, Ford J, Sengupta A, Mueser K, et al. Randomized controlled trial of cognitive‐behavioural therapy for chronic posttraumatic stress disorder in adult female survivors of childhood sexual abuse. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2005;73(3):515‐24. - PubMed
Monson 2006 {published data only}
    1. Monson CM, Gradus JL, Young‐Xu Y, Schnurr P, Price JL, Schumm JA. Change in posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms: Do clinicians and patients agree?. Psychological Assessment 2008;20(2):131‐8. - PubMed
    1. Monson CM, Schnurr PP, Resick PA, Friedman MJ, Young‐Xu Y, Stevens SP. Cognitive processing therapy for veterans with military related posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2006;74(5):898‐907. - PubMed
Mueser 2008 {published data only}
    1. Gottlieb JD, Mueser KT, Rosenberg SD, Xie H, Wolfe RS. Psychotic depression, posttraumatic stress disorder, and engagement in cognitive‐behavioral therapy within an outpatient sample of adults with serious mental illness. Comprehensive Psychiatry 2011;52(1):41‐9. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Mueser K. Cognitive‐behavioural treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder in people with severe mental illness. Proceedings of the 30th Annual Conference of the British Association for Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapies; 2002 July 17 ‐ 20; Warwick. 2002.
    1. Mueser KT, Rosenberg S, Jankowski K, Hamblen J, Carty P. Cognitive‐behavioral treatment of PTSD in clients with severe mental illness. Proceedings of the 157th Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association; 2004 May 1 ‐ 6; New York, NY. 2004:11d.
    1. Mueser KT, Rosenburg SD, Xie H, Jankowski MK, Bolton EE, Lu W, et al. A randomized controlled trial of cognitive‐behavioral treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder in severe mental illness. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2008;76(2):259‐71. - PMC - PubMed
Neuner 2004 {published data only}
    1. Neuner F, Schauer M, Klaschik C, Karunakara U, Elbert T. A comparison of narrative exposure therapy, supportive counselling, and psychoeducation for treating posttraumatic stress disorder in an African refugee settlement. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2004;72(4):579‐87. - PubMed
    1. Schauer M, Neuner F, Rockstroh BS, Elber TR. Narrative exposure treatment as intervention for survivors of organized violence in refugee camps. Proceedings of the XII World Congress of Psychiatry; 2002 Aug 24 ‐ 29; Yokohama, Japan. 2002:FC‐56‐3.
Neuner 2008 {published data only}
    1. Neuner F, Onyut PL, Ertl V, Odenwald M, Schauer E, Elbert T. Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder by trained lay counselors in an African refugee settlement: A randomised controlled trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2008;76(4):686‐94. - PubMed
Neuner 2010 {published data only}
    1. Neuner F, Kurreck S, Ruf M, Odenwald M, Elbert T, Schauer M. Can asylum seekers with posttraumatic stress disorder be successfully treated? A randomized controlled pilot study. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy 2010;39(2):81‐91. - PubMed
Nijdam 2012 {published data only}
    1. Nijdam M, Gersons BPR, Reitsma JB, Olff M. Brief eclectic psychotherapy v. eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing for post traumatic stress disorder: randomised controlled trial. British Journal of Psychiatry 2012;200(3):224‐31. - PubMed
Paunovic 2011 {published data only}
    1. Paunovic N. Exposure Inhibition Therapy as a treatment for chronic posttraumatic stress disorder: A controlled pilot study. Psychology 2011;2(6):605‐14.
Peniston 1991 {published data only}
    1. Peniston EG, Kulkosky PJ. Alpha‐theta brainwave neuro‐feedback therapy for Vietnam veterans with combat‐related post‐traumatic stress disorder. Medical Psychotherapy 1991;4:47‐60.
Power 2002 {published data only}
    1. Power K, McGoldrick T, Brown K, Buchanan R, Sharp D, Swanson V, et al. A controlled comparison of eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing versus exposure plus cognitive restructuring versus waiting list in the treatment of post‐traumatic stress disorder. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy 2002;9(4):229‐318.
Ready 2010 {published data only}
    1. Ready DJ, Gerardi RJ, Backscheider AG, Mascaro N, Rothbaum BO. Comparing virtual reality exposure therapy to present centred therapy with 11 US Vietnam Veterans with PTSD. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking 2010;13(1):49‐54. - PubMed
Resick 2002 {published data only}
    1. Nishith P, Nixon RDV, Resick PA. Resolution of trauma‐related guilt following treatment of PTSD in female rape victims: A result of cognitive processing therapy targeting comorbid depression?. Journal of Affective Disorders 2005;86(2‐3):259‐65. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Resick PA, Nishith P, Griffin MG. How well does cognitive‐behavioral therapy treat symptoms of complex PTSD? An examination of child sexual abuse survivors within a clinical trial. CNS Spectrums 2003;8(5):340‐55. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Resick PA, Nishith P, Weaver TL, Astin MC, Feuer CA. A comparison of cognitive‐processing therapy with prolonged exposure and a waiting condition for the treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder in female rape victims. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2002;70(4):867‐79. - PMC - PubMed
Rothbaum 1997 {published data only}
    1. Rothbaum BO. A controlled study of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disordered sexual assault victims. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic 1997;61(3):317‐34. - PubMed
Rothbaum 2005 {published data only}
    1. Rothbaum BO, Astin MC, Marsteller F. Prolonged exposure versus eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing (EMDR) for PTSD rape victims. Journal of Traumatic Stress 2005;18:607‐616. - PubMed
Scheck 1998 {published data only}
    1. Scheck MM, Schaeffer JA, Gillette C. Brief psychological intervention with traumatized young women: the efficacy of eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing. Journal of Traumatic Stress 1998;11(1):25‐44. - PubMed
Schnurr 2003 {published data only}
    1. Monson CM, Gradus JL, Young‐Xu Y, Schnurr P, Price JL, Schumm JA. Change in posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms: Do clinicians and patients agree?. Psychological Assessment 2008;20(2):131‐8. - PubMed
    1. Schnurr PP, Friedman MJ, Foy DW, Shea MT, Hsieh FY, Lavori PW, et al. Randomized trial of trauma‐focused group therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry 2003;60(5):481‐9. - PubMed
Schnurr 2007 {published data only}
    1. Engel C, Friedman M, Foa E, Shea MT, Schnurr P, Resick P. CSP #494: Primary Findings. Proceedings of the 22nd Annual Meeting, International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies; 2006 November 4 ‐ 7; Hollywood, CA. 2006:58.
    1. Engel C, Friedman M, Foa E, Shea MT, Schnurr P, Resick P. Design and Rationale for CSP #494. Proceedings of the 22nd Annual Meeting, International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies; 2006 Nov 4 ‐ 7; Hollywood, CA. 2006:58.
    1. Schnurr PP, Friedman MJ, Engel CC, Foa EB, Shea MT, Chow BK, et al. Cognitive behavioural therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder in women. JAMA 2007;28(8):820‐30. - PubMed
    1. Schnurr PP, Friedman MJ, Engel CC, Foa EB, Shea MT, Resick PM, et al. Issues in the design of multisite clinical trials of psychotherapy: VA Cooperative Study No. 494 as an example. Contemporary Clinical Trials. 2005;26(6):626‐36. - PubMed
Taylor 2003 {published data only}
    1. Taylor S. PTSD treatment outcome predictors: Exposure therapy, EMDR and relaxation. Proceedings of the 19th Annual Meeting, International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies; 2003 Oct 29 ‐ Nov 1; Chicago, IL. 2003.
    1. Taylor S, Thordarson DS, Maxfield L, Fedoroff IC, Lovell K, Ogrodniczuk J. Comparative efficacy, speed, and adverse effects of three PTSD treatments: exposure therapy, EMDR, and relaxation training. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2003;71(2):330‐8. - PubMed
Vaughan 1994 {published data only}
    1. Vaughan K, Armstrong MS, Gold R, O'Connor N, Jenneke W, Tarrier N. A trial of eye movement desensitization compared to image habituation training and applied muscle relaxation in post‐traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 1994;25(4):283‐91. - PubMed
Wells 2012 {published data only}
    1. Wells A, Colbear JS. Treating posttraumatic stress disorder with metacognitive therapy: A preliminary controlled study. Journal of Clinical Psychology 2012;68:373‐81. - PubMed
Zang 2013 {published data only}
    1. Zang Y, Hunt N, Cox T. A randomised controlled pilot study: the effectiveness of narrative exposure therapy with adult survivors of the Sichuan earthquale. BMC Psychiatry 2013;13:41. - PMC - PubMed
Zlotnick 1997 {published data only}
    1. Zlotnick C, Shea MT, Pearlstein TB, Rosen KJ, Mulrenin K, Simpson EB. Affect management group for survivors of sexual abuse with PTSD. Proceedings of the 149th Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association; 1996 May 4 ‐ 9; New York, NY. 1996:0292.
    1. Zlotnick C, Shea TM, Rosen K, Simpson E, Mulrenin K, Begin A, et al. An affect‐management group for women with posttraumatic stress disorder and histories of childhood sexual abuse. Journal of Traumatic Stress 1997;10(3):425‐36. - PubMed

References to studies excluded from this review

Abbasnejad 2007 {published data only}
    1. Abbasnejad M, Mahani KN, Zamyad A. Efficacy of "eye movement desensitization and reprocessing" in reducing anxiety and unpleasant feelings due to earthquake experience. Psychological Research 2007;9(1):104‐117.
Arntz 2007 {published data only}
    1. Arntz A, Tiesema M, Kindt M. Treatment of PTSD: a comparison of imaginal exposure with and without imagery rescripting. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 2007;38(4):345‐70. - PubMed
Barabasz 2013 {published data only}
    1. Barabasz A, Barabasz M, Christensen C, French B, Watkins JG. Efficacy of single‐session abreactive ego state therapy for combat stress injury, PTSD, and ASD. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis 2013;61(1):1‐19. - PubMed
Boudewyns 1990 {published data only}
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Chemtob 1997 {published data only}
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Classen 2001 {published data only}
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Classen 2010 {published data only}
    1. Classen CC, Palesh OG, Cavanaugh CE, Koopman C, Kaupp JW, Kraemer HC, et al. A comparison of trauma‐focused and present focused group therapy for survivors of childhood sexual abuse: a randomised controlled trial. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice and Policy 2010;3(1):84‐93.
Cole 2007 {published data only}
    1. Cole KL, Sarlund‐Heinrich P, Brown LS. Developing and assessing effectiveness of a time limited therapy group for incarcerated women survivors of childhood sexual abuse. Journal of Trauma and Dissociation 2007;8(2):97‐121. - PubMed
Davis 2007 {published data only}
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Difede 2007a {published data only}
    1. Difede J, Malta LS, Best S, Hen‐Haase C, Metzler T, Bryant R, et al. A randomized controlled trial for world trade centre attack related PTSD in disaster workers. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 2007;195(10):861‐5. - PubMed
DuHamel 2010 {published data only}
    1. DuHamel KN, Mosher CE, Winkel G, Labay LE, Rini C, Meschian YM, et al. Randomized clinical trial of telephone administered cognitive behavioural therapy to reduce post‐traumatic stress disorder and distress symptoms after hematopoietic stem‐cell transplantation. Journal of Clinical Oncology 2010;28(23):3754‐61. - PMC - PubMed
Dunn 2007 {published data only}
    1. Dunn NJ, Rehm LP, Schillaci J, Souchek J, Mehta P, Ashton CM, et al. A randomized controlled trial of self‐management and psychoeducational group therapies for comorbid chronic posttraumatic stress disorder and depressive disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress 2007;20(3):221‐37. - PubMed
Echeburua 1996 {published data only}
    1. Echeburua E, Corral P, Sarasua B, Zubizarreta I. Treatment of acute posttraumatic stress disorder in rape victims: an experimental study. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 1996;10(3):185‐99.
Edmond 1999 {published data only}
    1. Edmond T, Rubin A. Assessing the long‐term effects of EMDR: Results from an 18 month follow‐up study with adult female survivors of CSA. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse 2004;13(1):69‐86. - PubMed
    1. Edmond T, Rubin A, Wambach KG. The effectiveness of EMDR with adult female survivors of childhood sexual abuse. Social Work Research 1999;23:103‐16.
Falsetti 2001 {published data only}
    1. Falsetti SA, Resnick HS, Davis J. Multiple channel exposure therapy ‐ combining cognitive‐behavioral therapies for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder with panic attacks. Behavior Modification 2005;29(1):70‐94. - PubMed
    1. Falsetti SA, Resnick HS, Davis J, Gallagher NG. Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder with comorbid panic attacks: combining cognitive processing therapy with panic control treatment techniques. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research and Practice 2001;5(4):252‐60.
    1. Falsetti SA, Erwin BA, Resnick HS, Davis J, Combs‐Lane AM. Multiple channel exposure therapy of PTSD: Impact of treatment on functioning and resources. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy 2003;17(2):133‐47.
Falsetti 2005 {published data only}
    1. Falsetti S.A, Resnick H.S, Davis J. Multiple channel exposure therapy. Behavior Modification 2005;29(1):70‐94. - PubMed
Foa 2006 {published data only}
    1. Foa EB, Zoellner LA, Feeny NC. An evaluation of three brief programmes for facilitating recovery after assault. Journal of Traumatic Stress 2006;19(1):29‐43. - PubMed
Frommberger 2004 {published data only}
    1. Frommberger U, Nyberg E, Richter H, Stieglitz R‐D, Berger M. Paroxetine vs. cognitive‐behavioral therapy in the treatment of depression in PTSD patients. Proceedings of the 21st Collegium Internationale Neuro psychopharmacologicum; 1998 Jul 12 ‐ 16; Glasgow, Scotland. 1998:PM02013.
    1. Frommberger U, Stieglitz R, Nyberg E, Richter H, Novelli‐Fischer U, Angenendt J, et al. Comparison between paroxetine and behaviour therapy in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD): a pilot study. International Journal of Psychiatry in Clinical Practice 2004;8(1):19‐23. - PubMed
Gidron 1996 {published data only}
    1. Gidron Y, Peri T, Connolly JF, Shalev AY. Written disclosure in posttraumatic stress disorder: is it beneficial for the patient?. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 1996;184(8):505‐7. - PubMed
Ginzberg 2009 {published data only}
    1. Ginzburg K, Butler LD, Giese‐Davis J, Cavanaugh CE, Neri E, Koopman C, et al. Shame, guilt, and posttraumatic stress disorder in adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse at risk for human immunodeficiency virus: outcomes of a randomized clinical trial of group psychotherapy treatment. Journal od Nervous and Mental Disorders 2009;197(7):536‐42. - PubMed
Glynn 1999 {published data only}
    1. Glynn SM, Eth S, Randolph ET, Foy DW, Urbaitis M, Boxer L, et al. A test of behavioral family therapy to augment exposure for combat‐related posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1999;67(2):243‐51. - PubMed
Hiari 2005 {published data only}
    1. Hiari M, Clum GA. An internet based self‐change programme for traumatic event related fear, distress and maladaptive coping. Journal of Traumatic Stress 2005;18(6):631‐6. - PubMed
Jaberghaderi 2004 {published data only}
    1. Jaberghaderi N, Greenwald R, Rubin A, Dalatabadi S, Zand SO. A comparison of CBT and EMDR for sexually‐abused Iranian girls. Proceedings of the 18th Annual Meeting, International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies. Baltimore, MD, Nov 7 ‐ 12, 2002.
    1. Jaberghaderi N, Greenwald R, Rubin A, Zand SO, Dolatabadi S. A comparison of CBT and EMDR for sexually‐abused Iranian girls. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy 2004;11(5):358‐68.
Knaevelsrud 2007 {published data only}
    1. Knaevelsrud C, Maercker A. Internet‐based treatment for PTSD reduces distress and facilitates the development of a strong therapeutic alliance. BMC Psychiatry 2007;7:142‐147. - PMC - PubMed
Lange 2001 {published data only}
    1. Lange A, Ven JP, Schrieken B, Emmelkamp PMG. Interapy: Treatment of posttraumatic stress through the internet: A controlled trial. Journal of Behaviour Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 2001;55(6):603‐11. - PubMed
Lange 2003 {published data only}
    1. Lange A, Rietdijk D, Hudcovicova M, Ven JP, Schrieken B, Emmelkamp PM. Interapy: a controlled randomised trial of standardised treatment of post‐traumatic stress through the internet. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2003;71(5):901‐9. - PubMed
Litz 2007 {published data only}
    1. Litz BT, Engel CC, Bryant RA, Papa A. A randomized, controlled proof‐of‐concept trial of an internet‐based, therapist‐assisted self‐management treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 2007;164(11):1676‐83. - PubMed
Maercker 2006 {published data only}
    1. Maercker A, Zollner T, Menning H, Rabe S, Karl A. Dresden PTSD treatment study: randomized controlled trial of motor vehicle accident survivors. BMC Psychiatry 2006;29(6):1‐8. - PMC - PubMed
Mithoefer 2011 {published data only}
    1. Mithoefer MC, Wagner MT, Mithoefer T, Jerome L, Doblin R. The safety and efficacy of {+/‐}3,4‐methylenedioxymethamphetamine‐ assisted psychotherapy in subjects with chronic, treatment‐resistant posttraumatic stress disorder: the first randomized controlled pilot study. Journal of Psychopharmacology 2011;25(4):439‐52. - PMC - PubMed
Najavits 2006 {published data only}
    1. Najavits LM, Gallop RJ, Weiss RD. Seeking safety: Therapy for adolescent girls with PTSD and substance use disorder: A randomised controlled trial. Journal of Behavioural Health Services and Research 2006;33(4):453‐63. - PubMed
Paunovic 2001 {published data only}
    1. Paunovic N, Ost LG. Cognitive‐behavior therapy versus exposure therapy in the treatment of PTSD in refugees. Behaviour Research and Therapy 2001;39(10):1183‐97. - PubMed
Price 2007 {published data only}
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Rabe 2008 {published data only}
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