Judy Porter - Profile on Academia.edu (original) (raw)
Papers by Judy Porter
on Auditory Status and Gender
jiv.sagepub.com
The Relationship Between Child Maltreatment and Partner Violence Victimization and Perpetration Among College Students
Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2014
Partner violence is a pervasive public health concern that has received significant attention ove... more Partner violence is a pervasive public health concern that has received significant attention over the past three decades. Although a number of studies have reported that college students who are Deaf or hard of hearing are at an increased risk of experiencing partner violence compared with their hearing counterparts, little is known about partner violence perpetration among college students who are Deaf or hard of hearing. Furthermore, beyond disability, studies examining partner violence among students with disabilities tend to ignore other potential risk factors that may increase the risk of partner violence as a victim and/or a perpetrator. This exploratory study examines the extent of partner violence among male and female college students by auditory status and the relationship between experiencing and perpetrating partner abuse (i.e., physical abuse and psychological abuse) and child maltreatment (i.e., witnessing abuse and experiencing child physical abuse). The study also e...
A Comparison of Deaf College Students' and Hard of Hearing College Students' Experiences and Risk Factors of Psychological and Physical Abuse
SAGE Open, 2014
ABSTRACT
Athens Journal of Social Sciences, 2018
This study explores the effects of being mistreated as a child and the possibility of becoming a ... more This study explores the effects of being mistreated as a child and the possibility of becoming a victim of intimate partner violence with an emphasis on auditory status. Deaf or head of hearing children experience childhood mistreatment, including psychological and physical abuse at a higher rate than hearing children. This study examines the hypothesis that having been mistreated as a child and being a member of a minority and disabled group leads to a greater likelihood of becoming a victim of interpersonal violence. The study also researches the auditory status of the partner dyadhearing with hearing, hearing with Deaf, hearing with hard of hearing, Deaf with Deaf, and hard of hearing with hard of hearing. The hypothesis that Deaf or hard of hearing partnered with hearing will experience greater rates of abuse is tested.
Evaluating Self-Control Theory Among the Deaf Community
International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology
This study evaluates the generality of self-control theory with a previously untested cultural gr... more This study evaluates the generality of self-control theory with a previously untested cultural group rarely studied by criminologists, the Deaf community. Survey data ( n = 428) from participants attending a university that houses a college for the Deaf and hard-of-hearing were compared with a sample of “hearing” students. The findings support Gottfredson and Hirschi’s cultural invariance thesis as self-control was consistently able to predict a wide range of rule-breaking behaviors among the culturally distinct groups examined. However, several unexpected results challenge the parental management thesis. In particular, exposure to effective parenting techniques was a significant contributor to variations in self-control for the hearing, but not the Deaf sample. Additionally, self-control did not fully mediate the relationship between child-rearing experiences and norm violating behaviors for the Deaf sample. Implications of these findings are discussed.
Exposure to Childhood Maltreatment as Related to Adult Intimate Partner Victimization among College Students: The Contribution of Childhood Polyvictimization
Psychology
This study will explore polyvictimization as a child and the effects of this on adult intimate pe... more This study will explore polyvictimization as a child and the effects of this on adult intimate personal violence. The study consisted of 260 surveys of participants at a northeastern middle size university. Cross tabulations and binomial regressions were conducted. The current study had two objectives: 1) to examine the extent of partner victimization and child maltreatment (witnessing intra-parental abuse and/or experiencing child abuse/sexual abuse) among a sample of college students and determine whether these experiences vary by gender; 2) to explore whether polyvictimization, including child maltreatment, may increase the risk of intimate partner victimization in adulthood. Findings revealed that women were statistically significantly more likely than men to report experiencing higher rates of psychological, physical and sexual abuse as an adult, although findings indicated men were also victimized by a partner within the last year. A large number of respondents reported experiencing maltreatment as a child, which included physical abuse, sexual abuse, or witnessing abuse by a parent/caregiver, although findings in the current study revealed no significant differences between men and women. The results also found some support for the effects of polyvictimization and adult intimate partner victimization. Implications and directions for further research are discussed. It is suggested that institutions develop means to educate and address these concerns for all genders. Parents/caregivers and health professionals should be made aware of effects on adults’ experiences of intimate partner violence that violence witnessed as a child and abuse experienced as a child may have.
Investigating the Risk of Date Rape by Auditory Status
Violence and victims, Dec 10, 2017
This exploratory study examines the impact of auditory status, gender, and prior sexual victimiza... more This exploratory study examines the impact of auditory status, gender, and prior sexual victimization on attitudes andbehaviors related to date rape among undergraduate college students (n = 3,352) at a private university in the northeast. An abbreviated version of the College Date Rape Attitude and Behavior Survey (Lanier & Elliot, 1997) and the Sexual Experiences Survey (Koss, Gidycz, & Wisniewski, 1987) were employed. Findings indicated that Deaf and hard of hearing (DHH) students were more likely to experience negative sexual experiences than hearing students. No differences were found in rape-supportive attitudes by auditory status. The analysis also found that DHH students were more likely to engage in sexual behaviors that increase the risk of date rape than were hearing students. Finally, significant differences were found regarding gender and prior sexual victimization on rape attitudes and behaviors. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.
Psychology
Our research examines the effect of auditory status and gender on self-reported psychological and... more Our research examines the effect of auditory status and gender on self-reported psychological and physical abuse of college students from a northeastern university in the United States. A total of 816 college students were surveyed. Forty classes were randomly selected and surveys were administered to students in those classes. Predictions from disability theory, feminist theory, and feminist disability theory were tested using binary logistic regression analysis. Gender specific binary logistic regressions were run to examine the possibility that predictors of abuse differ by gender. Disability theory predicted that Deaf and hard of hearing students were at a higher risk for reporting victimization. The results from the analyses support disability theory and show that Deaf and hard of hearing students were more likely to report victimization. Feminist theory predicted that women would be more likely to be abused than men. Feminist theory received mixed support. Women regardless of auditory status were more likely to report psychological abuse, but were not more likely to report physical abuse. Feminist disability theory hypothesized that the risk of abuse would be higher for Deaf and hard of hearing women than for either hearing women and men, and Deaf and hard of hearing men. Feminist disability theory was tested by including an interaction effect (auditory status by gender). Feminist disability theory received no support. The interaction effect between auditory status and gender was negative, indicating that Deaf and hard of hearing women college students were less likely to report victimization than one would expect when the interaction effect is not included in the model.
Psychology
Our research examines the possible association of sexual orientation and self-reported sexual har... more Our research examines the possible association of sexual orientation and self-reported sexual harassment, sexual assault, intimate partner psychological abuse, and intimate partner physical abuse of college students from a northeastern university in the United States. Understanding the prevalence of these behaviors within this age group is important, as developing appropriate college policy to reduce these actions at this time may be beneficial for future prevention. This study also allows for one of the few true comparisons between those students who identified as sexual minority and non-sexual minority college students 1. A total of 1881 college students were surveyed. Classes were randomly selected and surveys were administered to students in those classes. Gender specific models were also analyzed to examine if the relationship between sexual orientation and victimization differs for males and females. The results from the analyses support the prediction that sexual minority students were more likely to report all four types of victimization than non-sexual minority students. Sexual minority students were about four times more likely to report sexual assault, two times more likely to report sexual harassment and physical abuse, and about 1.5 times more likely to report psychological abuse. Sexual minority males were more likely to report sexual assault (nine times), sexual harassment (3.5 times), and physical abuse (twice as likely). Sexual minority females were about twice as likely to report sexual assault, physical abuse, and psychological abuse.
Attitudes toward Sexual Assault and Dating Violence among Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing College Students
Dual Marginality: The Impact of Auditory Status and Sexual Orientation on Abuse in a College Sample of Women and Men
Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 2013
ABSTRACT This exploratory study examined the relationship between the combination of auditory sta... more ABSTRACT This exploratory study examined the relationship between the combination of auditory status and sexual orientation, and experiencing interpersonal violence, as measured by sexual, physical, and psychological abuse. A cross-sectional examination of 1,023 undergraduate students including 222 Deaf and hard-of-hearing students provided the data. Findings revealed that gay, lesbian, and bisexual students who also were Deaf or hard of hearing were more likely to experience sexual, physical, and psychological abuse than those in mainstream majority groups. The combination of auditory minority with sexual minority status for students had the strongest effect for physical and psychological abuse. Implications for policy and future research are provided.
Understanding Date Rape Attitudes and Behaviors: Exploring the Influence of Race, Gender, and Prior Sexual Victimization
Victims & Offenders, 2015
ABSTRACT This exploratory investigation examines the influence of race, gender, and prior sexual ... more ABSTRACT This exploratory investigation examines the influence of race, gender, and prior sexual victimization on attitudes and behaviors related to date rape from a large sample of college students (n = 3,084) in the United States. The results of this study indicate that gender was a salient factor, with males more likely to subscribe to undesirable attitudes toward date rape and to engage in behaviors that increase the risk of both men and women perpetrating date rape. Findings also indicate that racial differences exist in that black students were less likely to subscribe to undesirable attitudes and to engage in sexual behaviors that increase the risk of perpetrating date rape than were white students. Finally, the analyses found previous sexual victimization experiences unexpectedly increased undesirable attitudes toward and behaviors associated with date rape. Implications of the results are discussed.
Violence and Victims, 2011
Studies that explore experiences of abuse among deaf or hard of hearing college students are spar... more Studies that explore experiences of abuse among deaf or hard of hearing college students are sparse and usually focus on lifetime experiences rather than the college years. A random sample of more than 1,000 college students at a campus in Upstate New York provided the data for this study. An institute for the deaf or hard of hearing was one of the colleges at the university and provided a unique opportunity to explore experiences among this demographic. Victimization rates and experiences by auditory status-deaf and hard of hearing or hearing-were examined. Binomial regression analyses were employed and findings indicated a significant association with being deaf or hard of hearing and physical and psychological abuse at the hands of a partner. Implications for policy and future research are discussed.
Journal of Interpersonal Violence - J INTERPERS VIOLENCE, 2011
Rape, sexual violence, psychological violence, and physical violence, among college students have... more Rape, sexual violence, psychological violence, and physical violence, among college students have been a concern. Lifetime events are often studied but not violence that specifically transpires while one is in college. Underrepresented groups such as Deaf and Hard of Hearing students, students who are gay, lesbian, and bisexual, and students who are members of racial and ethnic minorities have not been studied as extensively as White, heterosexual females. The authors used several measures to investigate the incidence of sexual violence, physical and psychological abuse among underrepresented groups in a random sample of 1,028 college students at a private, northeastern, technological campus in upstate New York, United States and analyzed victimization rates by gender, race/ethnicity, auditory status, and sexual orientation. Binary logistic regression analyses found that statistically significant differences are likely to exist between members of underrepresented groups and groups in the majority. The study found statistically significant associations between Deaf and Hard of Hearing students and students who were gay, lesbian, bisexual, or other sexual orientation with psychological abuse and physical abuse. Racial and ethnic minorities and gay, lesbian, bisexual, and other sexual orientation students were significantly more at risk for sexual Article Porter and Williams 3211 abuse. Gay, lesbian, bisexual, and other sexual orientation students, students who were members of a racial or ethnic minority, and female students were significantly more likely to be raped. Female heterosexual students were more likely to be the victim of an attempted rape. Suggestions for further research and policy implications are provided.
The …, Jan 1, 2005
This study aims to develop an in-depth understanding of the issues important to primary care phys... more This study aims to develop an in-depth understanding of the issues important to primary care physicians in providing care to cognitively impaired elders. Design and Methods: In-depth interviews were conducted with 20 primary care physicians. Text coded as ''cognitive impairment'' was retrieved and analyzed by use of grounded theory analysis techniques. Results: A patient's impaired ability to provide an accurate history and to participate in selfcare hindered the usual process of care, often resulting in greater medical uncertainty and feelings of inadequacy and frustration for the physician. Shifting the goal of care from ''curing'' the patient's illness to ''caring'' for the patient's quality of life was also problematic. The doctor-patient relationship changed dramatically as others became involved in care, often with attendant ethical dilemmas related to patient autonomy and the locus of decision making. Many physicians described a deep sense of loss and grief as the personhood of patients faded. The increased complexity and prominent social and emotional issues were difficult to manage in the context of the current model of practice. Implications: Profound changes occur in the process of care with cognitively impaired patients. The increased complexity mandates an expanded model of care that addresses the prominent psychosocial and ethical aspects of care as well as the medical ones.
on Auditory Status and Gender
jiv.sagepub.com
The Relationship Between Child Maltreatment and Partner Violence Victimization and Perpetration Among College Students
Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2014
Partner violence is a pervasive public health concern that has received significant attention ove... more Partner violence is a pervasive public health concern that has received significant attention over the past three decades. Although a number of studies have reported that college students who are Deaf or hard of hearing are at an increased risk of experiencing partner violence compared with their hearing counterparts, little is known about partner violence perpetration among college students who are Deaf or hard of hearing. Furthermore, beyond disability, studies examining partner violence among students with disabilities tend to ignore other potential risk factors that may increase the risk of partner violence as a victim and/or a perpetrator. This exploratory study examines the extent of partner violence among male and female college students by auditory status and the relationship between experiencing and perpetrating partner abuse (i.e., physical abuse and psychological abuse) and child maltreatment (i.e., witnessing abuse and experiencing child physical abuse). The study also e...
A Comparison of Deaf College Students' and Hard of Hearing College Students' Experiences and Risk Factors of Psychological and Physical Abuse
SAGE Open, 2014
ABSTRACT
Athens Journal of Social Sciences, 2018
This study explores the effects of being mistreated as a child and the possibility of becoming a ... more This study explores the effects of being mistreated as a child and the possibility of becoming a victim of intimate partner violence with an emphasis on auditory status. Deaf or head of hearing children experience childhood mistreatment, including psychological and physical abuse at a higher rate than hearing children. This study examines the hypothesis that having been mistreated as a child and being a member of a minority and disabled group leads to a greater likelihood of becoming a victim of interpersonal violence. The study also researches the auditory status of the partner dyadhearing with hearing, hearing with Deaf, hearing with hard of hearing, Deaf with Deaf, and hard of hearing with hard of hearing. The hypothesis that Deaf or hard of hearing partnered with hearing will experience greater rates of abuse is tested.
Evaluating Self-Control Theory Among the Deaf Community
International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology
This study evaluates the generality of self-control theory with a previously untested cultural gr... more This study evaluates the generality of self-control theory with a previously untested cultural group rarely studied by criminologists, the Deaf community. Survey data ( n = 428) from participants attending a university that houses a college for the Deaf and hard-of-hearing were compared with a sample of “hearing” students. The findings support Gottfredson and Hirschi’s cultural invariance thesis as self-control was consistently able to predict a wide range of rule-breaking behaviors among the culturally distinct groups examined. However, several unexpected results challenge the parental management thesis. In particular, exposure to effective parenting techniques was a significant contributor to variations in self-control for the hearing, but not the Deaf sample. Additionally, self-control did not fully mediate the relationship between child-rearing experiences and norm violating behaviors for the Deaf sample. Implications of these findings are discussed.
Exposure to Childhood Maltreatment as Related to Adult Intimate Partner Victimization among College Students: The Contribution of Childhood Polyvictimization
Psychology
This study will explore polyvictimization as a child and the effects of this on adult intimate pe... more This study will explore polyvictimization as a child and the effects of this on adult intimate personal violence. The study consisted of 260 surveys of participants at a northeastern middle size university. Cross tabulations and binomial regressions were conducted. The current study had two objectives: 1) to examine the extent of partner victimization and child maltreatment (witnessing intra-parental abuse and/or experiencing child abuse/sexual abuse) among a sample of college students and determine whether these experiences vary by gender; 2) to explore whether polyvictimization, including child maltreatment, may increase the risk of intimate partner victimization in adulthood. Findings revealed that women were statistically significantly more likely than men to report experiencing higher rates of psychological, physical and sexual abuse as an adult, although findings indicated men were also victimized by a partner within the last year. A large number of respondents reported experiencing maltreatment as a child, which included physical abuse, sexual abuse, or witnessing abuse by a parent/caregiver, although findings in the current study revealed no significant differences between men and women. The results also found some support for the effects of polyvictimization and adult intimate partner victimization. Implications and directions for further research are discussed. It is suggested that institutions develop means to educate and address these concerns for all genders. Parents/caregivers and health professionals should be made aware of effects on adults’ experiences of intimate partner violence that violence witnessed as a child and abuse experienced as a child may have.
Investigating the Risk of Date Rape by Auditory Status
Violence and victims, Dec 10, 2017
This exploratory study examines the impact of auditory status, gender, and prior sexual victimiza... more This exploratory study examines the impact of auditory status, gender, and prior sexual victimization on attitudes andbehaviors related to date rape among undergraduate college students (n = 3,352) at a private university in the northeast. An abbreviated version of the College Date Rape Attitude and Behavior Survey (Lanier & Elliot, 1997) and the Sexual Experiences Survey (Koss, Gidycz, & Wisniewski, 1987) were employed. Findings indicated that Deaf and hard of hearing (DHH) students were more likely to experience negative sexual experiences than hearing students. No differences were found in rape-supportive attitudes by auditory status. The analysis also found that DHH students were more likely to engage in sexual behaviors that increase the risk of date rape than were hearing students. Finally, significant differences were found regarding gender and prior sexual victimization on rape attitudes and behaviors. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.
Psychology
Our research examines the effect of auditory status and gender on self-reported psychological and... more Our research examines the effect of auditory status and gender on self-reported psychological and physical abuse of college students from a northeastern university in the United States. A total of 816 college students were surveyed. Forty classes were randomly selected and surveys were administered to students in those classes. Predictions from disability theory, feminist theory, and feminist disability theory were tested using binary logistic regression analysis. Gender specific binary logistic regressions were run to examine the possibility that predictors of abuse differ by gender. Disability theory predicted that Deaf and hard of hearing students were at a higher risk for reporting victimization. The results from the analyses support disability theory and show that Deaf and hard of hearing students were more likely to report victimization. Feminist theory predicted that women would be more likely to be abused than men. Feminist theory received mixed support. Women regardless of auditory status were more likely to report psychological abuse, but were not more likely to report physical abuse. Feminist disability theory hypothesized that the risk of abuse would be higher for Deaf and hard of hearing women than for either hearing women and men, and Deaf and hard of hearing men. Feminist disability theory was tested by including an interaction effect (auditory status by gender). Feminist disability theory received no support. The interaction effect between auditory status and gender was negative, indicating that Deaf and hard of hearing women college students were less likely to report victimization than one would expect when the interaction effect is not included in the model.
Psychology
Our research examines the possible association of sexual orientation and self-reported sexual har... more Our research examines the possible association of sexual orientation and self-reported sexual harassment, sexual assault, intimate partner psychological abuse, and intimate partner physical abuse of college students from a northeastern university in the United States. Understanding the prevalence of these behaviors within this age group is important, as developing appropriate college policy to reduce these actions at this time may be beneficial for future prevention. This study also allows for one of the few true comparisons between those students who identified as sexual minority and non-sexual minority college students 1. A total of 1881 college students were surveyed. Classes were randomly selected and surveys were administered to students in those classes. Gender specific models were also analyzed to examine if the relationship between sexual orientation and victimization differs for males and females. The results from the analyses support the prediction that sexual minority students were more likely to report all four types of victimization than non-sexual minority students. Sexual minority students were about four times more likely to report sexual assault, two times more likely to report sexual harassment and physical abuse, and about 1.5 times more likely to report psychological abuse. Sexual minority males were more likely to report sexual assault (nine times), sexual harassment (3.5 times), and physical abuse (twice as likely). Sexual minority females were about twice as likely to report sexual assault, physical abuse, and psychological abuse.
Attitudes toward Sexual Assault and Dating Violence among Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing College Students
Dual Marginality: The Impact of Auditory Status and Sexual Orientation on Abuse in a College Sample of Women and Men
Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 2013
ABSTRACT This exploratory study examined the relationship between the combination of auditory sta... more ABSTRACT This exploratory study examined the relationship between the combination of auditory status and sexual orientation, and experiencing interpersonal violence, as measured by sexual, physical, and psychological abuse. A cross-sectional examination of 1,023 undergraduate students including 222 Deaf and hard-of-hearing students provided the data. Findings revealed that gay, lesbian, and bisexual students who also were Deaf or hard of hearing were more likely to experience sexual, physical, and psychological abuse than those in mainstream majority groups. The combination of auditory minority with sexual minority status for students had the strongest effect for physical and psychological abuse. Implications for policy and future research are provided.
Understanding Date Rape Attitudes and Behaviors: Exploring the Influence of Race, Gender, and Prior Sexual Victimization
Victims & Offenders, 2015
ABSTRACT This exploratory investigation examines the influence of race, gender, and prior sexual ... more ABSTRACT This exploratory investigation examines the influence of race, gender, and prior sexual victimization on attitudes and behaviors related to date rape from a large sample of college students (n = 3,084) in the United States. The results of this study indicate that gender was a salient factor, with males more likely to subscribe to undesirable attitudes toward date rape and to engage in behaviors that increase the risk of both men and women perpetrating date rape. Findings also indicate that racial differences exist in that black students were less likely to subscribe to undesirable attitudes and to engage in sexual behaviors that increase the risk of perpetrating date rape than were white students. Finally, the analyses found previous sexual victimization experiences unexpectedly increased undesirable attitudes toward and behaviors associated with date rape. Implications of the results are discussed.
Violence and Victims, 2011
Studies that explore experiences of abuse among deaf or hard of hearing college students are spar... more Studies that explore experiences of abuse among deaf or hard of hearing college students are sparse and usually focus on lifetime experiences rather than the college years. A random sample of more than 1,000 college students at a campus in Upstate New York provided the data for this study. An institute for the deaf or hard of hearing was one of the colleges at the university and provided a unique opportunity to explore experiences among this demographic. Victimization rates and experiences by auditory status-deaf and hard of hearing or hearing-were examined. Binomial regression analyses were employed and findings indicated a significant association with being deaf or hard of hearing and physical and psychological abuse at the hands of a partner. Implications for policy and future research are discussed.
Journal of Interpersonal Violence - J INTERPERS VIOLENCE, 2011
Rape, sexual violence, psychological violence, and physical violence, among college students have... more Rape, sexual violence, psychological violence, and physical violence, among college students have been a concern. Lifetime events are often studied but not violence that specifically transpires while one is in college. Underrepresented groups such as Deaf and Hard of Hearing students, students who are gay, lesbian, and bisexual, and students who are members of racial and ethnic minorities have not been studied as extensively as White, heterosexual females. The authors used several measures to investigate the incidence of sexual violence, physical and psychological abuse among underrepresented groups in a random sample of 1,028 college students at a private, northeastern, technological campus in upstate New York, United States and analyzed victimization rates by gender, race/ethnicity, auditory status, and sexual orientation. Binary logistic regression analyses found that statistically significant differences are likely to exist between members of underrepresented groups and groups in the majority. The study found statistically significant associations between Deaf and Hard of Hearing students and students who were gay, lesbian, bisexual, or other sexual orientation with psychological abuse and physical abuse. Racial and ethnic minorities and gay, lesbian, bisexual, and other sexual orientation students were significantly more at risk for sexual Article Porter and Williams 3211 abuse. Gay, lesbian, bisexual, and other sexual orientation students, students who were members of a racial or ethnic minority, and female students were significantly more likely to be raped. Female heterosexual students were more likely to be the victim of an attempted rape. Suggestions for further research and policy implications are provided.
The …, Jan 1, 2005
This study aims to develop an in-depth understanding of the issues important to primary care phys... more This study aims to develop an in-depth understanding of the issues important to primary care physicians in providing care to cognitively impaired elders. Design and Methods: In-depth interviews were conducted with 20 primary care physicians. Text coded as ''cognitive impairment'' was retrieved and analyzed by use of grounded theory analysis techniques. Results: A patient's impaired ability to provide an accurate history and to participate in selfcare hindered the usual process of care, often resulting in greater medical uncertainty and feelings of inadequacy and frustration for the physician. Shifting the goal of care from ''curing'' the patient's illness to ''caring'' for the patient's quality of life was also problematic. The doctor-patient relationship changed dramatically as others became involved in care, often with attendant ethical dilemmas related to patient autonomy and the locus of decision making. Many physicians described a deep sense of loss and grief as the personhood of patients faded. The increased complexity and prominent social and emotional issues were difficult to manage in the context of the current model of practice. Implications: Profound changes occur in the process of care with cognitively impaired patients. The increased complexity mandates an expanded model of care that addresses the prominent psychosocial and ethical aspects of care as well as the medical ones.