Dawn Watling | Royal Holloway, University of London (original) (raw)
Papers by Dawn Watling
Developmental Psychology Forum, Sep 1, 2014
PubMed, 2012
There is a great amount of research on hemispheric lateralisation for processing emotions and on ... more There is a great amount of research on hemispheric lateralisation for processing emotions and on the recognition of emotions across the lifespan. However, few researchers have explored the links between these two measures. This paper highlights how trends in these two research areas inform our understanding of how lateralisation for emotion processing may influence emotion recognition performance throughout the lifespan, including if the development of emotion lateralisation is a response to our environmental experiences of learning (experience dependent) or a result of having specific experiences at a particular time (experience expectant). The development of emotion lateralisation across the lifespan (infancy through to late adulthood) is explored with reference to past research and through the integration of the novel research offered within this special issue of Laterality. We also explore what we can learn from atypical populations. We propose that researchers need to focus on three key avenues of future research (longitudinal research, investigating the role of hormones, and research that explores the evolution of laterality) all which will provide greater insight into the development of laterality and how this may be associated with emotion processing.
British Journal of Educational Psychology, 2021
BackgroundYounger children are increasingly using social networking sites (SNS; Ofcom, Children a... more BackgroundYounger children are increasingly using social networking sites (SNS; Ofcom, Children and Parents: Media Use and Attitudes Report, 2019, https://www.ofcom.org.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0020/108182/children‐parents‐media‐use‐attitudes‐2017.pdf). In doing so, they may experience both benefits (e.g., enhanced social capital) and risks (e.g., cyberbullying). Parents and teachers play an important role in shaping children’s perceptions via internet mediation behaviours (Livingstone et al., 2017, J. Commun., 67, 82).AimsAn understanding of both children’s and adults’ perceptions of the risks and benefits of SNS use within the home and school contexts is limited within current literature. This study explored parents’, teachers’, and children’s perceptions of the risks and benefits of SNS use and how adults mediate this.Sample(s)A sample of 42 participants, including 13 parents (aged 28–48), 14 teachers (aged 26–54), and 15 children (aged 7–12), participated within this study.Meth...
Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning
The education sector is considered to have the poorest security culture score amongst many sector... more The education sector is considered to have the poorest security culture score amongst many sectors. Human aspects of cyber security including cyber security culture which have often been overlooked in the study of cyber security have not been fully explored in Higher Education Institutions (HEIs). The lack of understanding of cyber security culture, unclear definition of the concept and guidance on how to measure and foster it, are challenges HEIs face. To address this lack of knowledge and understanding, we explore the factors that influence people's view of cyber security culture in UK HEIs. We interviewed senior HEI leaders, academics, professional services staff, and students (19 participants in total) in three UK universities of similar characteristics. We find that communication necessary to influence security culture in HEIs is lacking. There is lack of policies/frameworks in place to guide user behaviour. We also observe that IT expectations are not well defined, and phi...
The Encyclopedia of Child and Adolescent Development, 2019
International Journal of Cyber Behavior, Psychology and Learning
At present, 87% of adolescents (aged 12-15 years) report using social networking sites (SNS). Res... more At present, 87% of adolescents (aged 12-15 years) report using social networking sites (SNS). Research predominantly highlights the risks of SNS use (e.g., cyberbullying), yet SNS also presents potential benefits (e.g., enhancing social relationships). This study aims to explore adolescent perceptions of the benefits of SNS use and whether risk concern may predict these. Adolescents (N= 342; 53.3% female; M= 13.92, SD=1.35) completed two measures: sorting items about positive SNS use and an adapted SNS risk concern scale. Findings suggest females' SNS risk concern positively predicted perceptions of disclosing to family online, whilst older females viewed this less favourably. Also, both males and females who viewed social capital positively viewed social comparison positively, and vice versa.
Computers in Human Behavior, 2021
Scientific Reports
Eye tracking allows the researcher to capture individual differences in the expression of visual ... more Eye tracking allows the researcher to capture individual differences in the expression of visual exploration behaviour, which in certain contexts has been found to reflect aspects of the user’s preferences and personality. In a novel approach, we recorded the eye movements of 180 participants whilst they browsed their Facebook News Feed and employed a machine learning approach to predict each of the self-reported Big Five personality traits from this viewing behaviour. We identify that specific visual behaviours are informative of an individual’s personality trait information, and can be used to psychologically profile social networking site users significantly better than chance after collecting only 20 seconds of viewing behaviour. We discuss potential applications for user engagement during human–computer interactions, and highlight potential privacy concerns.
Individuals who anticipate poor performance on some imminent task often offer disclaimers – verba... more Individuals who anticipate poor performance on some imminent task often offer disclaimers – verbal statements which serve to protect them from negative social evaluation by dissociating the poor performance from their identity. In the present study, 7to 14-year-olds (N = 226) responded to hypothetical vignettes where the protagonists either used or did not use a disclaimer when telling a peer audience that they did not expect to perform well on an imminent task. Children made predictions about the evaluations that the peer audience would form of the protagonists, regarding both their imminent performance and their typical performance. Children over 10 years of age recognised that a disclaimer would lead the audience to form a more favourable impression of the protagonists‟ typical performance. Further, boys who were more preferred by their classmates tended to have a better understanding of the social evaluation consequences of using a disclaimer. Results are discussed in the light ...
Journal of Environmental Psychology
Abstract This investigation sought to discover whether engaging school children (aged 8–11) with ... more Abstract This investigation sought to discover whether engaging school children (aged 8–11) with nature could produce sustained improvements in mood and wellbeing in the long-term. We designed a program of biodiversity-focused activities carried out over one academic year in the school grounds. Participation in this program produced significant improvements in children's mood and wellbeing, which were sustained across the academic year. Improvements in wellbeing were not found in a control sample of children who did not take part in the activities. Children with initially lower feelings of connection to nature became more connected over the course of their participation. Building engagement with nature into school curricula could therefore be a low-cost way to improve children's psychological wellbeing.
Journal of Adolescence
Introduction: This study examined types of reported simultaneous mixed emotion experiences for th... more Introduction: This study examined types of reported simultaneous mixed emotion experiences for the first time in adolescence for high and low intensity emotion pairs using an Analogue Emotion Scale which affords the graphing of two opposite valence emotions over time on the same graph. Methods: In a cross sectional design, 163 participants based in schools across the UK formed two age groups representing early and mid-adolescence (12 years, 5 months-16 years, 9 months vs. 16 years, 10 months-18 years, 8 months) across two conditions considering either their own (n=83) or another child's (n= 80) emotional experience divided equally for high (n=80) or low (n= 83) intensity mixed emotion pairs presented in vignettes about themselves or another person. They were seen individually and completed an emotion presence interview and an Analogue Emotion Scale about the emotions experienced in the condition appropriate vignette. Results: Participants reported mixed emotions both sequentially and simultaneously. In particular we found that children showed that others experience emotions in a more sequential manner, while they themselves would experience more emotions in a highly simultaneous way. Emotion experience was different depending on the emotion pair and age group. Conclusions: Adolescents' subjective mixed emotion experiences vary by intensity and patterns of simultaneity over time. Findings are discussed in relation to an evaluative space model of mixed emotion and applications of the AES with adolescent populations.
British Journal of Developmental Psychology
Disclaimers are used prior to expected poor performance to protect the individual from being eval... more Disclaimers are used prior to expected poor performance to protect the individual from being evaluated negatively by the audience (Lee et al., 1999, Personality and Individual Differences, 26, 701). In this study, 8-, 11-, and 14-year-olds (N = 147) heard stories of a protagonist telling a familiar or unfamiliar peer that they did not think that they would perform well today, followed by either no disclaimer or a disclaimer and the activity outcome. Children judged how the audience would rate the protagonist's typical performance and character, and judged their response motivation. Children judged that familiar audiences would be more positive about typical performance and character than unfamiliar audiences; this varied depending on disclaimer use and participant sex. Further, children's typical performance judgements were more positive when the outcome was negative if a disclaimer was offered, with older children recognizing the self-presentational motivation in these conditions. Results are explored in relation to children's understanding of disclaimers. Statement of contribution What is already known on this subject? By 10 years, children understand the mitigating function of a disclaimer. Audience characteristics (age and familiarity) affect children's self-presentation judgements. Children have difficulty understanding why someone would disclose negative information of the self. What the present study adds From 11 years showed an understanding of the self-presentational (SP) function of disclaimers. The disclaimer's mitigating function was only found when the activity outcome was negative. More positive judgements with familiar peers, but more SP justifications with unfamiliar peers. Self-presentation tactics are devices used to manage the impressions that observers may form of an actor (Goffman, 1959) and are therefore a fundamental process from which an individual can establish and defend one's identify in their social environment (Tice, Butler, Muraven, & Stillwell, 1995). There are assertive tactics that are used to establish a positive identity and defensive tactics that are used to defend one's identity from negative social evaluation when one believes that his or her identity is in danger of being modified This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited and is not used for commercial purposes.
British Journal of Developmental Psychology
This study investigated whether children's expressive drawings of themselves vary as a function o... more This study investigated whether children's expressive drawings of themselves vary as a function of audience authority and familiarity. One hundred and seventy-five children, 85 boys and 90 girls, aged between 8 years 1 months and 9 years 2 months (M = 8 years 5 months) were allocated into seven groups: a reference group (n = 25), where no audience was specified, and six audience groups (n = 25 per group) varying by audience type (policeman vs. teacher vs. man) and familiarity (familiar vs. unfamiliar). They drew baseline then happy and sad drawings of themselves, rated affect towards drawings type, and rated perceived audience authority. Audience familiarity and authority impacted expressive drawing strategy use and this varied by gender. There was higher overall expressive strategy use for happy drawings and for girls, and influences of affect type, familiarity, and authority were found. The implications of children's perceptions of audience type on their expressive drawings are discussed. This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited and is not used for commercial purposes.
Laterality: Asymmetries of Body, Brain and Cognition
This study was designed to investigate the patterns of electrophysiological responses of early em... more This study was designed to investigate the patterns of electrophysiological responses of early emotional processing at frontocentral sites in adults and to explore whether adults' activation patterns show hemispheric lateralisation for facial emotion processing. Thirty-five adults viewed full face and chimeric face stimuli. After viewing two faces, sequentially, participants were asked to decide which of the two faces was more emotive. The findings from the standard faces and the chimeric faces suggest that emotion processing is present during the early phases of face processing in the frontocentral sites. In particular, sad emotional faces are processed differently than neutral and happy (including happy chimeras) faces in these early phases of processing. Further, there were differences in the electrode amplitudes over the left and right hemisphere, particularly in the early temporal window. This research provides supporting evidence that the chimeric face test is a test of emotion processing that elicits right hemispheric processing.
Child development
Three hundred and forty-one children (Mage = 9,0 years) engaged in a series of science tasks in c... more Three hundred and forty-one children (Mage = 9,0 years) engaged in a series of science tasks in collaborative, same-sex pairs or did not interact. All children who collaborated on the science tasks advanced in basic-level understanding of the relevant task (motion down an incline). However, only boys advanced in their conceptual understanding at a 3-week posttest. Discussion of concepts and procedural aspects of the task led to conceptual development for boys but not girls. Gender differences in behavioral style did not influence learning. Results are discussed in terms of the links between gender and engagement in conversations, and how gender differences in collaboration may relate to differences in participation in science.
Watson for their contribution to data collection. We are grateful for the valuable comments of th... more Watson for their contribution to data collection. We are grateful for the valuable comments of three anonymous reviewers. 2. This research was funded by Brighton & Hove City Council.
Educational Psychology
This research is the first to assess children’s representation of mixed emotion using a freehand ... more This research is the first to assess children’s representation of mixed emotion using a freehand drawing task. Two hundred and forty-one 5-11-year olds completed a drawing and a colour preference task. Children heard a condition appropriate vignette about themselves or a protagonist designed to evoke mixed emotion, and were asked to draw the self or the protagonist experiencing neutral, happy and sad affect. Children who reported mixed emotions after the story also drew themselves or the protagonist experiencing mixed emotion. For mixed emotion, children used red, green and blue more in drawings of the protagonist, and yellow more in drawings of the self. Interestingly, strategies for mixed emotion drawings were similar to those used for happy drawings; more specifically, in drawings of the self, children were particularly more likely to use smiles (for happy and sad drawings) and fewer frowns. Findings are discussed in relation to self-presentational behaviour.
Developmental Psychology Forum, Sep 1, 2014
PubMed, 2012
There is a great amount of research on hemispheric lateralisation for processing emotions and on ... more There is a great amount of research on hemispheric lateralisation for processing emotions and on the recognition of emotions across the lifespan. However, few researchers have explored the links between these two measures. This paper highlights how trends in these two research areas inform our understanding of how lateralisation for emotion processing may influence emotion recognition performance throughout the lifespan, including if the development of emotion lateralisation is a response to our environmental experiences of learning (experience dependent) or a result of having specific experiences at a particular time (experience expectant). The development of emotion lateralisation across the lifespan (infancy through to late adulthood) is explored with reference to past research and through the integration of the novel research offered within this special issue of Laterality. We also explore what we can learn from atypical populations. We propose that researchers need to focus on three key avenues of future research (longitudinal research, investigating the role of hormones, and research that explores the evolution of laterality) all which will provide greater insight into the development of laterality and how this may be associated with emotion processing.
British Journal of Educational Psychology, 2021
BackgroundYounger children are increasingly using social networking sites (SNS; Ofcom, Children a... more BackgroundYounger children are increasingly using social networking sites (SNS; Ofcom, Children and Parents: Media Use and Attitudes Report, 2019, https://www.ofcom.org.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0020/108182/children‐parents‐media‐use‐attitudes‐2017.pdf). In doing so, they may experience both benefits (e.g., enhanced social capital) and risks (e.g., cyberbullying). Parents and teachers play an important role in shaping children’s perceptions via internet mediation behaviours (Livingstone et al., 2017, J. Commun., 67, 82).AimsAn understanding of both children’s and adults’ perceptions of the risks and benefits of SNS use within the home and school contexts is limited within current literature. This study explored parents’, teachers’, and children’s perceptions of the risks and benefits of SNS use and how adults mediate this.Sample(s)A sample of 42 participants, including 13 parents (aged 28–48), 14 teachers (aged 26–54), and 15 children (aged 7–12), participated within this study.Meth...
Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning
The education sector is considered to have the poorest security culture score amongst many sector... more The education sector is considered to have the poorest security culture score amongst many sectors. Human aspects of cyber security including cyber security culture which have often been overlooked in the study of cyber security have not been fully explored in Higher Education Institutions (HEIs). The lack of understanding of cyber security culture, unclear definition of the concept and guidance on how to measure and foster it, are challenges HEIs face. To address this lack of knowledge and understanding, we explore the factors that influence people's view of cyber security culture in UK HEIs. We interviewed senior HEI leaders, academics, professional services staff, and students (19 participants in total) in three UK universities of similar characteristics. We find that communication necessary to influence security culture in HEIs is lacking. There is lack of policies/frameworks in place to guide user behaviour. We also observe that IT expectations are not well defined, and phi...
The Encyclopedia of Child and Adolescent Development, 2019
International Journal of Cyber Behavior, Psychology and Learning
At present, 87% of adolescents (aged 12-15 years) report using social networking sites (SNS). Res... more At present, 87% of adolescents (aged 12-15 years) report using social networking sites (SNS). Research predominantly highlights the risks of SNS use (e.g., cyberbullying), yet SNS also presents potential benefits (e.g., enhancing social relationships). This study aims to explore adolescent perceptions of the benefits of SNS use and whether risk concern may predict these. Adolescents (N= 342; 53.3% female; M= 13.92, SD=1.35) completed two measures: sorting items about positive SNS use and an adapted SNS risk concern scale. Findings suggest females' SNS risk concern positively predicted perceptions of disclosing to family online, whilst older females viewed this less favourably. Also, both males and females who viewed social capital positively viewed social comparison positively, and vice versa.
Computers in Human Behavior, 2021
Scientific Reports
Eye tracking allows the researcher to capture individual differences in the expression of visual ... more Eye tracking allows the researcher to capture individual differences in the expression of visual exploration behaviour, which in certain contexts has been found to reflect aspects of the user’s preferences and personality. In a novel approach, we recorded the eye movements of 180 participants whilst they browsed their Facebook News Feed and employed a machine learning approach to predict each of the self-reported Big Five personality traits from this viewing behaviour. We identify that specific visual behaviours are informative of an individual’s personality trait information, and can be used to psychologically profile social networking site users significantly better than chance after collecting only 20 seconds of viewing behaviour. We discuss potential applications for user engagement during human–computer interactions, and highlight potential privacy concerns.
Individuals who anticipate poor performance on some imminent task often offer disclaimers – verba... more Individuals who anticipate poor performance on some imminent task often offer disclaimers – verbal statements which serve to protect them from negative social evaluation by dissociating the poor performance from their identity. In the present study, 7to 14-year-olds (N = 226) responded to hypothetical vignettes where the protagonists either used or did not use a disclaimer when telling a peer audience that they did not expect to perform well on an imminent task. Children made predictions about the evaluations that the peer audience would form of the protagonists, regarding both their imminent performance and their typical performance. Children over 10 years of age recognised that a disclaimer would lead the audience to form a more favourable impression of the protagonists‟ typical performance. Further, boys who were more preferred by their classmates tended to have a better understanding of the social evaluation consequences of using a disclaimer. Results are discussed in the light ...
Journal of Environmental Psychology
Abstract This investigation sought to discover whether engaging school children (aged 8–11) with ... more Abstract This investigation sought to discover whether engaging school children (aged 8–11) with nature could produce sustained improvements in mood and wellbeing in the long-term. We designed a program of biodiversity-focused activities carried out over one academic year in the school grounds. Participation in this program produced significant improvements in children's mood and wellbeing, which were sustained across the academic year. Improvements in wellbeing were not found in a control sample of children who did not take part in the activities. Children with initially lower feelings of connection to nature became more connected over the course of their participation. Building engagement with nature into school curricula could therefore be a low-cost way to improve children's psychological wellbeing.
Journal of Adolescence
Introduction: This study examined types of reported simultaneous mixed emotion experiences for th... more Introduction: This study examined types of reported simultaneous mixed emotion experiences for the first time in adolescence for high and low intensity emotion pairs using an Analogue Emotion Scale which affords the graphing of two opposite valence emotions over time on the same graph. Methods: In a cross sectional design, 163 participants based in schools across the UK formed two age groups representing early and mid-adolescence (12 years, 5 months-16 years, 9 months vs. 16 years, 10 months-18 years, 8 months) across two conditions considering either their own (n=83) or another child's (n= 80) emotional experience divided equally for high (n=80) or low (n= 83) intensity mixed emotion pairs presented in vignettes about themselves or another person. They were seen individually and completed an emotion presence interview and an Analogue Emotion Scale about the emotions experienced in the condition appropriate vignette. Results: Participants reported mixed emotions both sequentially and simultaneously. In particular we found that children showed that others experience emotions in a more sequential manner, while they themselves would experience more emotions in a highly simultaneous way. Emotion experience was different depending on the emotion pair and age group. Conclusions: Adolescents' subjective mixed emotion experiences vary by intensity and patterns of simultaneity over time. Findings are discussed in relation to an evaluative space model of mixed emotion and applications of the AES with adolescent populations.
British Journal of Developmental Psychology
Disclaimers are used prior to expected poor performance to protect the individual from being eval... more Disclaimers are used prior to expected poor performance to protect the individual from being evaluated negatively by the audience (Lee et al., 1999, Personality and Individual Differences, 26, 701). In this study, 8-, 11-, and 14-year-olds (N = 147) heard stories of a protagonist telling a familiar or unfamiliar peer that they did not think that they would perform well today, followed by either no disclaimer or a disclaimer and the activity outcome. Children judged how the audience would rate the protagonist's typical performance and character, and judged their response motivation. Children judged that familiar audiences would be more positive about typical performance and character than unfamiliar audiences; this varied depending on disclaimer use and participant sex. Further, children's typical performance judgements were more positive when the outcome was negative if a disclaimer was offered, with older children recognizing the self-presentational motivation in these conditions. Results are explored in relation to children's understanding of disclaimers. Statement of contribution What is already known on this subject? By 10 years, children understand the mitigating function of a disclaimer. Audience characteristics (age and familiarity) affect children's self-presentation judgements. Children have difficulty understanding why someone would disclose negative information of the self. What the present study adds From 11 years showed an understanding of the self-presentational (SP) function of disclaimers. The disclaimer's mitigating function was only found when the activity outcome was negative. More positive judgements with familiar peers, but more SP justifications with unfamiliar peers. Self-presentation tactics are devices used to manage the impressions that observers may form of an actor (Goffman, 1959) and are therefore a fundamental process from which an individual can establish and defend one's identify in their social environment (Tice, Butler, Muraven, & Stillwell, 1995). There are assertive tactics that are used to establish a positive identity and defensive tactics that are used to defend one's identity from negative social evaluation when one believes that his or her identity is in danger of being modified This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited and is not used for commercial purposes.
British Journal of Developmental Psychology
This study investigated whether children's expressive drawings of themselves vary as a function o... more This study investigated whether children's expressive drawings of themselves vary as a function of audience authority and familiarity. One hundred and seventy-five children, 85 boys and 90 girls, aged between 8 years 1 months and 9 years 2 months (M = 8 years 5 months) were allocated into seven groups: a reference group (n = 25), where no audience was specified, and six audience groups (n = 25 per group) varying by audience type (policeman vs. teacher vs. man) and familiarity (familiar vs. unfamiliar). They drew baseline then happy and sad drawings of themselves, rated affect towards drawings type, and rated perceived audience authority. Audience familiarity and authority impacted expressive drawing strategy use and this varied by gender. There was higher overall expressive strategy use for happy drawings and for girls, and influences of affect type, familiarity, and authority were found. The implications of children's perceptions of audience type on their expressive drawings are discussed. This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited and is not used for commercial purposes.
Laterality: Asymmetries of Body, Brain and Cognition
This study was designed to investigate the patterns of electrophysiological responses of early em... more This study was designed to investigate the patterns of electrophysiological responses of early emotional processing at frontocentral sites in adults and to explore whether adults' activation patterns show hemispheric lateralisation for facial emotion processing. Thirty-five adults viewed full face and chimeric face stimuli. After viewing two faces, sequentially, participants were asked to decide which of the two faces was more emotive. The findings from the standard faces and the chimeric faces suggest that emotion processing is present during the early phases of face processing in the frontocentral sites. In particular, sad emotional faces are processed differently than neutral and happy (including happy chimeras) faces in these early phases of processing. Further, there were differences in the electrode amplitudes over the left and right hemisphere, particularly in the early temporal window. This research provides supporting evidence that the chimeric face test is a test of emotion processing that elicits right hemispheric processing.
Child development
Three hundred and forty-one children (Mage = 9,0 years) engaged in a series of science tasks in c... more Three hundred and forty-one children (Mage = 9,0 years) engaged in a series of science tasks in collaborative, same-sex pairs or did not interact. All children who collaborated on the science tasks advanced in basic-level understanding of the relevant task (motion down an incline). However, only boys advanced in their conceptual understanding at a 3-week posttest. Discussion of concepts and procedural aspects of the task led to conceptual development for boys but not girls. Gender differences in behavioral style did not influence learning. Results are discussed in terms of the links between gender and engagement in conversations, and how gender differences in collaboration may relate to differences in participation in science.
Watson for their contribution to data collection. We are grateful for the valuable comments of th... more Watson for their contribution to data collection. We are grateful for the valuable comments of three anonymous reviewers. 2. This research was funded by Brighton & Hove City Council.
Educational Psychology
This research is the first to assess children’s representation of mixed emotion using a freehand ... more This research is the first to assess children’s representation of mixed emotion using a freehand drawing task. Two hundred and forty-one 5-11-year olds completed a drawing and a colour preference task. Children heard a condition appropriate vignette about themselves or a protagonist designed to evoke mixed emotion, and were asked to draw the self or the protagonist experiencing neutral, happy and sad affect. Children who reported mixed emotions after the story also drew themselves or the protagonist experiencing mixed emotion. For mixed emotion, children used red, green and blue more in drawings of the protagonist, and yellow more in drawings of the self. Interestingly, strategies for mixed emotion drawings were similar to those used for happy drawings; more specifically, in drawings of the self, children were particularly more likely to use smiles (for happy and sad drawings) and fewer frowns. Findings are discussed in relation to self-presentational behaviour.