Tineke Looijenga | University of Groningen (original) (raw)
Papers by Tineke Looijenga
Frisians of the Early Middle Ages. Studies in Historical Archaeoethnology, Volume 10, the Boydell Press, , 2021
The editors have chosen to publish the article A recently found belt buckle with rune-like signs ... more The editors have chosen to publish the article A recently found belt buckle with rune-like signs from Ukraine by Maxim Levada and Tineke Looijenga, even though we do not disagree with the two reviewers and their recommendations. Moreover, we appreciate that the authors have written the article and revised it, thus making the find public. We base our decisions on the following argument. JAAH is relatively inexpensive to publish and store in open access environments such as DIVA. Its ecological footprints are small and related to public interest in the published material. An article will be accessed or downloaded only when somebody wants to do just that. JAAH is a journal based upon openness not least in the review process. Reviewers are payed a modest fee and their reviews are published as an invited contribution to the journal. They represent an initial scientific discussion. A reviewer may choose to be published anonymous. Quality and ranking based on opaque quality criteria and profit are thus alien to JAAH. In the humanities, this position stands out as a reasonable attitude to research because there is very little paradigmatic, let alone objective progress to be made. As long as inter-subjectivity is valued and reasonably source critical readers exists, transparency is the paradigm that makes quality possible. The article in question is a case in point. The buckle and its inscription is potentially interesting. Nevertheless, the finder who robbed the site of its antiquities probably intentionally blurs its find circumstances. The reason for this may be a matter of profit and/or ideological. How much could the dishonest owner opt the prize of the buckle if its inscription were indeed original? Probably quite a lot, and more than if the runes were showed to be a modern addition to an old buckle.
De Gruyter Ergänzungsbände zum Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde, Mar 20, 2023
Abstract: In this paper it is argued that an independent or separate “Frisian” runic tradition di... more Abstract: In this paper it is argued that an independent or separate “Frisian” runic tradition did not exist; “Frisian” runes are part of the Anglo-Saxon corpus. This results from the observation that the Frisian terp-area was abandoned for over a century from the end of the third through the fourth century AD. The old Frisian population left, and a new population of immigrants, mainly from along the south-eastern North Sea coast (the same area the Angles, Saxons and Jutes come from), settled on the old homesteads, called terpen. For reasons unknown, they adopted or received the name Frisians, probably because the name of the land, Frisia, had remained, kept alive by Frankish and Merovingian writers. Another part of this paper is dedicated to the further analysis of the fifth century runic find from Bergakker in the Betuwe. It appears that the object may have been made in a Gallo-Roman workshop in Northern Gaul. Together with the fifth century runic object from a veteran’s grave in Fallward, Landkreis Cuxhaven, both objects may be witnesses of the merger of Germanic and Roman culture and the integration into Roman society. The interesting question is how runic literacy is to be understood in such a context. A comparison between the Anglo-Saxon runic corpus and the Old Frisian one is made, with the conclusion that both corpora should be merged, since they form a common tradition.
Old English Runes, 2023
In this paper it is argued that an independent or separate "Frisian" runic tradition did not exis... more In this paper it is argued that an independent or separate "Frisian" runic tradition did not exist; "Frisian" runes are part of the Anglo-Saxon corpus. This results from the observation that the Frisian terp-area was abandoned for over a century from the end of the third through the fourth century AD. The old Frisian population left, and a new population of immigrants, mainly from along the southeastern North Sea coast (the same area the Angles, Saxons and Jutes come from), settled on the old homesteads, called terpen. For reasons unknown, they adopted or received the name Frisians, probably because the name of the land, Frisia, had remained, kept alive by Frankish and Merovingian writers. Another part of this paper is dedicated to the further analysis of the fifth century runic find from Bergakker in the Betuwe. It appears that the object may have been made in a Gallo-Roman workshop in Northern Gaul. Together with the fifth century runic object from a veteran's grave in Fallward, Landkreis Cuxhaven, both objects may be witnesses of the merger of Germanic and Roman culture and the integration into Roman society. The interesting question is how runic literacy is to be understood in such a context. A comparison between the Anglo-Saxon runic corpus and the Old Frisian one is made, with the conclusion that both corpora should be merged, since they form a common tradition.
Palaeohispánica, May 4, 2020
Runica - Germanica - Mediaevalia. Ergänzungsbände zum Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde, 2003
Essays on the Early Franks, 2003
The two runic items that were found in the estuary of Meuse and Rhine might have a Frankish conne... more The two runic items that were found in the estuary of Meuse and Rhine might have a Frankish connection - they certainly do not belong to the Anglo-Frisian tradition.
Frisians of the Early Middle Ages, 2021
General introduction This chapter discusses runes and runic writing in the Early Middle Ages in g... more General introduction
This chapter discusses runes and runic writing in the Early Middle Ages in general, and in Frisia in particular. Objects with runes on them have been found in the Frisian terp-area dating from around the sixth to the ninth century. In this paper I aim to discuss how should we assess ‘Frisian’ runes and their relation with other runic traditions. Although our oldest known runic objects date from the second century, it is assumed that the runic alphabet was created sometime in the first century AD. But why, when and where runes were developed from an archaic Mediterranean model is still an unsolved question.
Runic writing, the exclusive indigenous script of Germania, emerged in a period when Germanic-speaking people grew increasingly in touch with the Roman Imperial world, a literate world. Many Germanic men served as mercenaries in the Roman army. They received Roman citizenship after 25 years’ service, and we may assume that some of them returned home after this service. Because this citizenship was hereditary, the sons of these auxiliaries were also Roman citizens, even before entering the army. Some of them made a career in the army, and learned to read and write. This became increasingly common in the second and third centuries AD, exactly the period in which we infer runic knowledge to have spread across a large part of northern Europe (Stoklund 2006, 358).
VELEIA Revista de Prehistoria, Historia Antigua, ArqueologÍa y FilologÍa clÁsicas la escritura, olvidar la escritura Nuevas perspectivas sobre la historia de la escritura en el Occidente romano, 2021
Abstract: This paper deals with the runic alphabet, the indigenous script of Germanic people, att... more Abstract: This paper deals with the runic alphabet, the indigenous script
of Germanic people, attested from the 2nd century AD onwards to the Middle Ages. Origin and application of the runes are discussed, as well as the
spread of the runes throughout northern, eastern and western Europe. Runes
eventually fell into disuse but were never completely forgotten. The renaissance resulted in renewed interest from the scientific side. The history of runology is therefore treated in brief.
AMSTERDAMER BEITRÄGE ZUR ÄLTEREN GERMANISTIK
Zeitschrift Fur Deutsches Altertum Und Deutsche Literatur, 2006
Memento Mori: Sterben und Begraben in einem ruralen Grenzgebiet / Sterven en begraven in een rurale grensregio, 2018
Inleiding In het rijke repertoire aan niet-religieuze grafpoëzie nemen de zogenaamde wormenverzen... more Inleiding In het rijke repertoire aan niet-religieuze grafpoëzie nemen de zogenaamde wormenverzen een bijzondere positie in. Onder wormenverzen versta ik een groep gedichten die met kleine variaties in de tekst op grafzerken voorkomt en die als conclusie heeft dat de overledene nu "een prooi der wormen" zal zijn. Het is een opvallende tekst, die een zeer sombere kern heeft, maar waaraan men een optimistische draai kon geven door zich alvast te verheugen op de opstanding. Er zijn in de provincie Groningen en in de grensstreek met Drenthe bijna twintig gevonden uit de periode van de late negentiende en het begin van de twintigste eeuw.
Palaeohispanica, 2020
This paper offers a survey of the oldest runic inscriptions of the northern parts of Europe. Runi... more This paper offers a survey of the oldest runic inscriptions of the northern parts of Europe. Runic writing is attested from the second century onwards to the Middle Ages, and was in use in several parts of northern Europe during different periods. The language used is formulaic, making the impression that inscriptions in runes were for special occasions and not for daily use. Germanic society was a non-literate society until Christendom arrived and with it a literate culture. Runes are applied epigraphically; only in ecclesiastical contexts they are used in manuscripts, thus offering very useful secondary information about rune-names, for instance. Runes had names for mnemonical and symbolical purposes. Resumen: Esta contribución ofrece una aproximación a las más antiguas inscripciones rúnicas de las partes septentrionales de Europa. La escritura rúnica se atestigua desde el siglo II d. E. hasta la Edad Media y fue empleada en distintas partes de Europa durante diferentes periodos. El lenguaje empleado es formular, lo que da la impresión de que las inscripciones rúnicas fueron para ocasiones especiales y no para un uso diario. La sociedad germánica permaneció ágrafa hasta la llegada del cristianismo y con él una cultura escrita. Las runas se usaron epigráficamente; solamente en contextos eclesiásticos las runas fueron usadas en manuscritos, lo que ofrece una muy útil información secundaria, por ejemplo, sobre los nombres rúnicos. Las runas poseían nombres con propósitos memorísticos y simbólicos.
Journal of Archaeology and Ancient History, 2019
ABSTRACT In 2015, a belt buckle (fig. 2a and 2b) was discovered in western Ukraine with a runelik... more ABSTRACT In 2015, a belt buckle (fig. 2a and 2b) was discovered in western Ukraine with a runelike inscription on the back. The buckle has no known context, but the find spot is between the Ukrainian villages of Sukhodil and Shydlivtsy (Husiatyn district in Ternopil oblast). The buckle was part of an illegal dig and is in private hands. Unfortunately, its whereabouts are unknown. A profound examination of the material and the inscription was therefore not possible. Yet we thought it appropriate to publish this find. According to its style, the buckle can be dated to the early part of the 5th century. In this article the buckle is compared to other buckles from Eastern Europe (Szabadbattyán, Bar, Yalta) and to parallels (Sösdala, Airan/Moult, Untersiebenbrunn) elsewhere in Europe. All buckles are dated to AD 420-440. The archaeological background in section 1 is written by the archaeologist Maxim Levada, while in section 2 the rune-like signs are described and discussed by runologist Tineke Looijenga. Although a transliteration is proposed, an interpretation is still lacking.
Journal of Archaeology and Ancient History, 2019
ABSTRACT In 2015, a belt buckle (fig. 2a and 2b) was discovered in western Ukraine with a runelik... more ABSTRACT
In 2015, a belt buckle (fig. 2a and 2b) was discovered in western Ukraine with a runelike inscription on the back. The buckle has no known context, but the find spot is between the Ukrainian villages of Sukhodil and Shydlivtsy (Husiatyn district in Ternopil oblast). The buckle was part of an illegal dig and is in private hands.
Unfortunately, its whereabouts are unknown. A profound examination of the material and the inscription was therefore not possible. Yet we thought it appropriate to publish this find. According to its style, the buckle can be dated to the early part of the 5th century. In this article the buckle is compared to other buckles from Eastern Europe (Szabadbattyán, Bar, Yalta) and to parallels (Sösdala, Airan/Moult,
Untersiebenbrunn) elsewhere in Europe. All buckles are dated to AD 420-440. The archaeological background in section 1 is written by the archaeologist Maxim Levada, while in section 2 the rune-like signs are described and discussed by runologist Tineke Looijenga. Although a transliteration is proposed, an interpretation is still lacking.
The recently found ring-sword of St Dizier (Champagne-Ardennes, France) with a runic inscription ... more The recently found ring-sword of St Dizier (Champagne-Ardennes, France) with a runic inscription 'alu' has urged a more profound research into the runic knowledge of the Merovingian Franks. Inscriptions in two other ring-swords from Grenay and Fréthun in Pas de Calais, France, added to the idea that there may have been more runic usage in early medieval France than we may think of in our philosophy. The enigmatic rune-word 'alu' combined with its occurrence in an elite sword may add to the impression runes were used in high circles.
This paper deals with the occurrence of the typical Anglo-Frisian runic innovations, when, why an... more This paper deals with the occurrence of the typical Anglo-Frisian runic innovations, when, why and how?
Bracteate Fyn-C 1 bears a runic inscription which might bear the name and cognomen of a Roman Emp... more Bracteate Fyn-C 1 bears a runic inscription which might bear the name and cognomen of a Roman Emperor. If that is the case, it would illustrate the Germanic fascination for the cult of the Roman Emperor and their willingness to imitate Roman culture.
Frisians of the Early Middle Ages. Studies in Historical Archaeoethnology, Volume 10, the Boydell Press, , 2021
The editors have chosen to publish the article A recently found belt buckle with rune-like signs ... more The editors have chosen to publish the article A recently found belt buckle with rune-like signs from Ukraine by Maxim Levada and Tineke Looijenga, even though we do not disagree with the two reviewers and their recommendations. Moreover, we appreciate that the authors have written the article and revised it, thus making the find public. We base our decisions on the following argument. JAAH is relatively inexpensive to publish and store in open access environments such as DIVA. Its ecological footprints are small and related to public interest in the published material. An article will be accessed or downloaded only when somebody wants to do just that. JAAH is a journal based upon openness not least in the review process. Reviewers are payed a modest fee and their reviews are published as an invited contribution to the journal. They represent an initial scientific discussion. A reviewer may choose to be published anonymous. Quality and ranking based on opaque quality criteria and profit are thus alien to JAAH. In the humanities, this position stands out as a reasonable attitude to research because there is very little paradigmatic, let alone objective progress to be made. As long as inter-subjectivity is valued and reasonably source critical readers exists, transparency is the paradigm that makes quality possible. The article in question is a case in point. The buckle and its inscription is potentially interesting. Nevertheless, the finder who robbed the site of its antiquities probably intentionally blurs its find circumstances. The reason for this may be a matter of profit and/or ideological. How much could the dishonest owner opt the prize of the buckle if its inscription were indeed original? Probably quite a lot, and more than if the runes were showed to be a modern addition to an old buckle.
De Gruyter Ergänzungsbände zum Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde, Mar 20, 2023
Abstract: In this paper it is argued that an independent or separate “Frisian” runic tradition di... more Abstract: In this paper it is argued that an independent or separate “Frisian” runic tradition did not exist; “Frisian” runes are part of the Anglo-Saxon corpus. This results from the observation that the Frisian terp-area was abandoned for over a century from the end of the third through the fourth century AD. The old Frisian population left, and a new population of immigrants, mainly from along the south-eastern North Sea coast (the same area the Angles, Saxons and Jutes come from), settled on the old homesteads, called terpen. For reasons unknown, they adopted or received the name Frisians, probably because the name of the land, Frisia, had remained, kept alive by Frankish and Merovingian writers. Another part of this paper is dedicated to the further analysis of the fifth century runic find from Bergakker in the Betuwe. It appears that the object may have been made in a Gallo-Roman workshop in Northern Gaul. Together with the fifth century runic object from a veteran’s grave in Fallward, Landkreis Cuxhaven, both objects may be witnesses of the merger of Germanic and Roman culture and the integration into Roman society. The interesting question is how runic literacy is to be understood in such a context. A comparison between the Anglo-Saxon runic corpus and the Old Frisian one is made, with the conclusion that both corpora should be merged, since they form a common tradition.
Old English Runes, 2023
In this paper it is argued that an independent or separate "Frisian" runic tradition did not exis... more In this paper it is argued that an independent or separate "Frisian" runic tradition did not exist; "Frisian" runes are part of the Anglo-Saxon corpus. This results from the observation that the Frisian terp-area was abandoned for over a century from the end of the third through the fourth century AD. The old Frisian population left, and a new population of immigrants, mainly from along the southeastern North Sea coast (the same area the Angles, Saxons and Jutes come from), settled on the old homesteads, called terpen. For reasons unknown, they adopted or received the name Frisians, probably because the name of the land, Frisia, had remained, kept alive by Frankish and Merovingian writers. Another part of this paper is dedicated to the further analysis of the fifth century runic find from Bergakker in the Betuwe. It appears that the object may have been made in a Gallo-Roman workshop in Northern Gaul. Together with the fifth century runic object from a veteran's grave in Fallward, Landkreis Cuxhaven, both objects may be witnesses of the merger of Germanic and Roman culture and the integration into Roman society. The interesting question is how runic literacy is to be understood in such a context. A comparison between the Anglo-Saxon runic corpus and the Old Frisian one is made, with the conclusion that both corpora should be merged, since they form a common tradition.
Palaeohispánica, May 4, 2020
Runica - Germanica - Mediaevalia. Ergänzungsbände zum Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde, 2003
Essays on the Early Franks, 2003
The two runic items that were found in the estuary of Meuse and Rhine might have a Frankish conne... more The two runic items that were found in the estuary of Meuse and Rhine might have a Frankish connection - they certainly do not belong to the Anglo-Frisian tradition.
Frisians of the Early Middle Ages, 2021
General introduction This chapter discusses runes and runic writing in the Early Middle Ages in g... more General introduction
This chapter discusses runes and runic writing in the Early Middle Ages in general, and in Frisia in particular. Objects with runes on them have been found in the Frisian terp-area dating from around the sixth to the ninth century. In this paper I aim to discuss how should we assess ‘Frisian’ runes and their relation with other runic traditions. Although our oldest known runic objects date from the second century, it is assumed that the runic alphabet was created sometime in the first century AD. But why, when and where runes were developed from an archaic Mediterranean model is still an unsolved question.
Runic writing, the exclusive indigenous script of Germania, emerged in a period when Germanic-speaking people grew increasingly in touch with the Roman Imperial world, a literate world. Many Germanic men served as mercenaries in the Roman army. They received Roman citizenship after 25 years’ service, and we may assume that some of them returned home after this service. Because this citizenship was hereditary, the sons of these auxiliaries were also Roman citizens, even before entering the army. Some of them made a career in the army, and learned to read and write. This became increasingly common in the second and third centuries AD, exactly the period in which we infer runic knowledge to have spread across a large part of northern Europe (Stoklund 2006, 358).
VELEIA Revista de Prehistoria, Historia Antigua, ArqueologÍa y FilologÍa clÁsicas la escritura, olvidar la escritura Nuevas perspectivas sobre la historia de la escritura en el Occidente romano, 2021
Abstract: This paper deals with the runic alphabet, the indigenous script of Germanic people, att... more Abstract: This paper deals with the runic alphabet, the indigenous script
of Germanic people, attested from the 2nd century AD onwards to the Middle Ages. Origin and application of the runes are discussed, as well as the
spread of the runes throughout northern, eastern and western Europe. Runes
eventually fell into disuse but were never completely forgotten. The renaissance resulted in renewed interest from the scientific side. The history of runology is therefore treated in brief.
AMSTERDAMER BEITRÄGE ZUR ÄLTEREN GERMANISTIK
Zeitschrift Fur Deutsches Altertum Und Deutsche Literatur, 2006
Memento Mori: Sterben und Begraben in einem ruralen Grenzgebiet / Sterven en begraven in een rurale grensregio, 2018
Inleiding In het rijke repertoire aan niet-religieuze grafpoëzie nemen de zogenaamde wormenverzen... more Inleiding In het rijke repertoire aan niet-religieuze grafpoëzie nemen de zogenaamde wormenverzen een bijzondere positie in. Onder wormenverzen versta ik een groep gedichten die met kleine variaties in de tekst op grafzerken voorkomt en die als conclusie heeft dat de overledene nu "een prooi der wormen" zal zijn. Het is een opvallende tekst, die een zeer sombere kern heeft, maar waaraan men een optimistische draai kon geven door zich alvast te verheugen op de opstanding. Er zijn in de provincie Groningen en in de grensstreek met Drenthe bijna twintig gevonden uit de periode van de late negentiende en het begin van de twintigste eeuw.
Palaeohispanica, 2020
This paper offers a survey of the oldest runic inscriptions of the northern parts of Europe. Runi... more This paper offers a survey of the oldest runic inscriptions of the northern parts of Europe. Runic writing is attested from the second century onwards to the Middle Ages, and was in use in several parts of northern Europe during different periods. The language used is formulaic, making the impression that inscriptions in runes were for special occasions and not for daily use. Germanic society was a non-literate society until Christendom arrived and with it a literate culture. Runes are applied epigraphically; only in ecclesiastical contexts they are used in manuscripts, thus offering very useful secondary information about rune-names, for instance. Runes had names for mnemonical and symbolical purposes. Resumen: Esta contribución ofrece una aproximación a las más antiguas inscripciones rúnicas de las partes septentrionales de Europa. La escritura rúnica se atestigua desde el siglo II d. E. hasta la Edad Media y fue empleada en distintas partes de Europa durante diferentes periodos. El lenguaje empleado es formular, lo que da la impresión de que las inscripciones rúnicas fueron para ocasiones especiales y no para un uso diario. La sociedad germánica permaneció ágrafa hasta la llegada del cristianismo y con él una cultura escrita. Las runas se usaron epigráficamente; solamente en contextos eclesiásticos las runas fueron usadas en manuscritos, lo que ofrece una muy útil información secundaria, por ejemplo, sobre los nombres rúnicos. Las runas poseían nombres con propósitos memorísticos y simbólicos.
Journal of Archaeology and Ancient History, 2019
ABSTRACT In 2015, a belt buckle (fig. 2a and 2b) was discovered in western Ukraine with a runelik... more ABSTRACT In 2015, a belt buckle (fig. 2a and 2b) was discovered in western Ukraine with a runelike inscription on the back. The buckle has no known context, but the find spot is between the Ukrainian villages of Sukhodil and Shydlivtsy (Husiatyn district in Ternopil oblast). The buckle was part of an illegal dig and is in private hands. Unfortunately, its whereabouts are unknown. A profound examination of the material and the inscription was therefore not possible. Yet we thought it appropriate to publish this find. According to its style, the buckle can be dated to the early part of the 5th century. In this article the buckle is compared to other buckles from Eastern Europe (Szabadbattyán, Bar, Yalta) and to parallels (Sösdala, Airan/Moult, Untersiebenbrunn) elsewhere in Europe. All buckles are dated to AD 420-440. The archaeological background in section 1 is written by the archaeologist Maxim Levada, while in section 2 the rune-like signs are described and discussed by runologist Tineke Looijenga. Although a transliteration is proposed, an interpretation is still lacking.
Journal of Archaeology and Ancient History, 2019
ABSTRACT In 2015, a belt buckle (fig. 2a and 2b) was discovered in western Ukraine with a runelik... more ABSTRACT
In 2015, a belt buckle (fig. 2a and 2b) was discovered in western Ukraine with a runelike inscription on the back. The buckle has no known context, but the find spot is between the Ukrainian villages of Sukhodil and Shydlivtsy (Husiatyn district in Ternopil oblast). The buckle was part of an illegal dig and is in private hands.
Unfortunately, its whereabouts are unknown. A profound examination of the material and the inscription was therefore not possible. Yet we thought it appropriate to publish this find. According to its style, the buckle can be dated to the early part of the 5th century. In this article the buckle is compared to other buckles from Eastern Europe (Szabadbattyán, Bar, Yalta) and to parallels (Sösdala, Airan/Moult,
Untersiebenbrunn) elsewhere in Europe. All buckles are dated to AD 420-440. The archaeological background in section 1 is written by the archaeologist Maxim Levada, while in section 2 the rune-like signs are described and discussed by runologist Tineke Looijenga. Although a transliteration is proposed, an interpretation is still lacking.
The recently found ring-sword of St Dizier (Champagne-Ardennes, France) with a runic inscription ... more The recently found ring-sword of St Dizier (Champagne-Ardennes, France) with a runic inscription 'alu' has urged a more profound research into the runic knowledge of the Merovingian Franks. Inscriptions in two other ring-swords from Grenay and Fréthun in Pas de Calais, France, added to the idea that there may have been more runic usage in early medieval France than we may think of in our philosophy. The enigmatic rune-word 'alu' combined with its occurrence in an elite sword may add to the impression runes were used in high circles.
This paper deals with the occurrence of the typical Anglo-Frisian runic innovations, when, why an... more This paper deals with the occurrence of the typical Anglo-Frisian runic innovations, when, why and how?
Bracteate Fyn-C 1 bears a runic inscription which might bear the name and cognomen of a Roman Emp... more Bracteate Fyn-C 1 bears a runic inscription which might bear the name and cognomen of a Roman Emperor. If that is the case, it would illustrate the Germanic fascination for the cult of the Roman Emperor and their willingness to imitate Roman culture.
How the runes were lost and won....
This paper deals with the runic alphabet, the indigenous script of Germanic people, attested from... more This paper deals with the runic alphabet, the indigenous script of Germanic people, attested from the 2nd century AD onwards to the Middle Ages. Origin and application of the runes are discussed, as well as the spread of the runes throughout northern, eastern and western Europe. Runes eventually fell into disuse but were never completely forgotten. The renaissance resulted in renewed interest from the scientific side. The history of runology is therefore treated in brief.