Anna Scott | Southern Cross University (original) (raw)

Papers by Anna Scott

Research paper thumbnail of Asexual Propagation of Sea Anemones That Host Anemonefishes: Implications for the Marine Ornamental Aquarium Trade and Restocking Programs

PLoS ONE, 2014

Anemonefishes and their host sea anemones form an iconic symbiotic association in reef environmen... more Anemonefishes and their host sea anemones form an iconic symbiotic association in reef environments, and are highly sought after in the marine aquarium trade. This study examines asexual propagation as a method for culturing a geographically widespread and commonly traded species of host sea anemone, Entacmaea quadricolor. Two experiments were done: the first to establish whether size or colour morph influenced survival after cutting into halves or quarters; and the second to see whether feeding was needed to maximise survival and growth after cutting. Survival rates were high in both experiments, with 89.3 and 93.8% of the anemones cut in half, and 62.5 and 80.4% cut in quarters surviving in experiments 1 and 2, respectively. Anemones that were cut in half were larger in size, and healed and grew quicker than those cut in quarters. However, even though survival was lower when the individuals were cut in quarters, this treatment produced the greatest number of anemones. Feeding increased oral disc diameter growth and reduced wet weight loss, but did not significantly influence pedal disc diameter. Given that the anemones took up to 56 d to form an off-centre mouth, it is highly likely that feeding may have produced greater effect if the experiment was run for longer. This low technology method of propagation could be used to produce individuals throughout the year and the anemones could then be used to supply the aquarium trade or restock depleted habitats, thus supporting biodiversity conservation in coral reef areas.

Research paper thumbnail of Microplastic ingestion rates are phenotype-dependent in juvenile anemonefish

Environmental Pollution, 2019

The potential influence of microplastic debris on marine organisms is an issue of great ecologica... more The potential influence of microplastic debris on marine organisms is an issue of great ecological and socioeconomic concern. Experiments exposing fishes and invertebrates to constant concentrations of microplastics often yield high variation in particle ingestion rates among individuals. Yet, despite an increasing interest in microplastic ingestion in the wild, the potential intrinsic drivers of inter-individual variation have received little attention so far. Here we assessed individual-level ingestion of Polyethylene microspheres by laboratory-reared juvenile anemonefish, Amphiprion ocellaris, in relation to (a) ambient particle concentrations and (b) repeatable behavioural traits. We show that microplastic ingestion is highly variable at all tested particle concentrations and that this variation can partially be explained by individual activity levels. Moreover, the relationship between ingestion and behavioural variation increased notably when only the most behaviourally consistent individuals (n ¼ 40 out of 60) were considered in the analysis. Our findings indicate that microplastic ingestion rates in juvenile reef fishes may be less dependent on ambient concentrations than expected; instead they are to some degree phenotype-dependent. Care should thus be taken when reporting mean responses to microplastic exposure treatments, because some individuals may not be affected in the same way as others due to differential ingestion behaviour. We also discuss potential ramifications of non-random ingestion variability on population-and community-level responses.

Research paper thumbnail of Anemonefish facilitate bleaching recovery in a host sea anemone

Scientific Reports

Ocean warming is causing the symbioses between cnidarians and their algal symbionts to breakdown ... more Ocean warming is causing the symbioses between cnidarians and their algal symbionts to breakdown more frequently, resulting in bleaching. For sea anemones, nutritional benefits derived from hosting anemonefishes increase their algal symbiont density. The sea anemone-anemonefish relationship could, therefore, facilitate bleaching recovery. To test this, bleached and unbleached sea anemones, both with and without anemonefish, were monitored in the laboratory. At the start of our experiment, algal symbiont density and colour score were lower in the bleached than unbleached sea anemones, whereas total chlorophyll remained similar. After 106 days, bleached sea anemones with anemonefish had an algal symbiont density and colour score equal to the controls (unbleached sea anemones and without anemonefish), indicating recovery had occurred. Furthermore, total chlorophyll was 66% higher in the bleached sea anemones with anemonefish than the controls. In contrast, recovery did not occur for th...

Research paper thumbnail of Reef fishes can recognize bleached habitat during settlement: sea anemone bleaching alters anemonefish host selection

Proceedings. Biological sciences / The Royal Society, May 25, 2016

Understanding how bleaching impacts the settlement of symbiotic habitat specialists and whether t... more Understanding how bleaching impacts the settlement of symbiotic habitat specialists and whether there is flexibility in settlement choices with regard to habitat quality is essential given our changing climate. We used five anemonefishes (Amphiprion clarkii, Amphiprion latezonatus, Amphiprion ocellaris, Amphiprion percula and Premnas biaculeatus) and three host sea anemones (Entacmaea quadricolor, Heteractis crispa and Heteractis magnifica) in paired-choice flume experiments to determine whether habitat naive juveniles have the olfactory capabilities to distinguish between unbleached and bleached hosts, and how this may affect settlement decisions. All anemonefishes were able to distinguish between bleached and unbleached hosts, and responded only to chemical cues from species-specific host anemones irrespective of health status, indicating a lack of flexibility in host use. While bleached hosts were selected as habitat, this occurred only when unbleached options were unavailable, w...

Research paper thumbnail of Comparative phylogeography of three host sea anemones in the Indo‐Pacific

Journal of Biogeography

This research was supported by the KAUST Office of Competitive Research Funds (OCRF) under Award ... more This research was supported by the KAUST Office of Competitive Research Funds (OCRF) under Award No. CRG-1-2012-BER-002 and baseline research funds to M.L.B. We thank Dr. Vanessa Robitzch Sierra (Universidad Austral de Chile) for her generous help with the genetic analysis of the specimens. We also thank the staff at the Bioscience CORE laboratory at King Abdullah University of Science and Technology for their sequencing support. Lastly, we are grateful to Dream Divers and many members of the Reef Ecology Lab at King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, past and present, for their logistical support. All specimens from the Red Sea and Djibouti were obtained in accordance with local regulations. For fieldwork in the Maldives conducted during the first Maldives Reef Biodiversity Workshop, we wish to thank the University of Milano-Bicocca Marine Research and High Education Centre in Magoodhoo, the Ministry of Fisheries and Agriculture, Republic of Aim The mutualistic relationship between anemones and anemonefishes is one of the most iconic examples of symbiosis. However, while anemonefishes have been extensively studied in terms of genetic connectivity, such information is lacking entirely for host sea anemones. Here, we provide the first information on the broad-scale population structure and phylogeographic patterns of three species of host sea anemone, Heteractis magnifica, Stichodactyla mertensii, and Entacmaea quadricolor. We evaluate if there is concordance in genetic structure across several distinct biogeographic areas within the Indo-Pacific region and to what extent the observed patterns may concur with those found for anemonefishes. Location Indo-Pacific, including the Red Sea. Taxon Heteractis magnifica, Stichodactyla mertensii, and Entacmaea quadricolor Methods Microsatellite markers and a combination of statistical methods including Bayesian clustering, Isolation by Distance (IBD), Analysis of Molecular Variance (AMOVA), and Principal Components Analysis (PCA) were used to determine population structure. The congruence among distance matrices method (CADM) was used to assess similarity in spatial genetic patterns among species. Results Significant population structure was identified in the three host anemone species. Each species is likely composed of at least two genetic clusters corresponding to two biogeographic regions, the Red Sea and the rest of the Indo-Pacific. Two of the three anemone species seem to be experiencing admixture where the two main clusters overlap (the Maldives). IBD analyses in the Red Sea revealed differences in gene flow among species, suggesting more limited dispersal potential for E. quadricolor than for S. mertensii and H. magnifica. Clonality is documented in S. mertensii for the first time. Main conclusions This research documents the genetic population structure for three ecologically important host sea anemones across the Indo-Pacific and provides valuable insights regarding their biogeography and evolution. Specifically, we found high levels of genetic divergence between populations across different biogeographic regions, suggesting different evolutionary lineages within species. At the same time, common geographic overlap of population structures suggests similar evolutionary histories among all three species. Interestingly, the observed patterns are congruent to some extent with structure reported for several anemonefish species, reflecting their close ecological association.

Research paper thumbnail of Southernmost records of the host sea anemone, Stichodactyla haddoni, and associated commensal shrimps in a climate change hotspot

Marine Biodiversity, 2014

Research paper thumbnail of Photochemical efficiency and antioxidant capacity in relation to Symbiodinium genotype and host phenotype in a symbiotic cnidarian

Marine Ecology Progress Series, 2014

Research paper thumbnail of Symbiont shuffling during thermal bleaching and recovery in the sea anemone Entacmaea quadricolor

Marine Biology, 2014

and 13.2 % in the control and bleached anemones, respectively. The increased relative abundance o... more and 13.2 % in the control and bleached anemones, respectively. The increased relative abundance of C25 to C3.25 after exposure to thermal stress may indicate that C3.25 performs poorly when temperature is elevated. Although no significant recovery in symbiont density was detected, a revival of the C3.25 genotype was found at day 117, which may indicate that it is either more competitive or has qualities that are beneficial to the symbiosis when thermal stress is no longer apparent. This work demonstrates the potential for this anemone species to shuffle its symbiont types in response to environmental change and could provide resilience during times of stress.

Research paper thumbnail of Trying to find Nemo: low abundance of sea anemones and anemonefishes on central and southern mid-shelf reefs in the Great Barrier Reef

Marine Biodiversity, 2014

Information on the abundance of species targeted for the marine aquarium trade is needed to help ... more Information on the abundance of species targeted for the marine aquarium trade is needed to help elucidate what levels of exploitation may be sustainable. Accordingly, this study documents the abundance and diversity of anemonefishes and their host sea anemones, which are highly sought after in the trade, using timed swims at seven mid-shelf reefs on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Three species of
anemone (Entacmaea quadricolor, n=49; Heteractis magnifica, n=7; Stichodactyla mertensii, n=3), and five species of anemonefishes were found (Amphiprion akindynos, n=12; A. perideraion, n=29; A. melanopus, n=11; Premnas biaculeatus, n=2). Many of the surveys sites (58 %) did not have anemones or anemonefishes, and at sites where they were present, numbers were generally low. Given these findings, it is essential that collection is carefully regulated to prevent localised extinctions and ensure that reproductive success is not adversely impacted.

Research paper thumbnail of Reduced salinity decreases the fertilization success and larval survival of two scleractinian coral species

Marine Environmental Research, 2013

Successful reproduction by scleractinian corals is essential for the maintenance of populations t... more Successful reproduction by scleractinian corals is essential for the maintenance of populations that form the foundation of coral reef ecosystems. Laboratory experiments were done to determine the effects of reduced salinity on the fertilization success and larval survival of two coral species, Platygyra daedalea and Acropora millepora, from the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Fertilization rates of P. daedalea and A. millepora were significantly reduced at 25.8 psu and 33.1 psu, respectively, and completed blocked at 18.4 psu for A. millepora. The estimated larval survival times were similar from 36.8 to 25.8 psu (P. daedalea 291e312 h, A. millepora 207e264 h), whereas the 18.4 psu treatment resulted in estimates of 153 h and 24 h for P. daedalea and A. millepora, respectively. These results demonstrate that reduced salinity is detrimental to the reproductive success of these corals, and if salinity is lowered by natural or anthropogenic sources during spawning, this would lead to decreased reproductive success and recruitment on reefs.

Research paper thumbnail of Symbiodinium diversity in the sea anemone Entacmaea quadricolor on the east Australian coast

Coral Reefs, 2013

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Research paper thumbnail of Effects of Feeding on the Growth Rates of Captive-Bred Heteractis crispa: A Popular Marine Ornamental for Aquariums

Bulletin of Marine Science, 2012

Abstract: Heteractis crispa (Ehrenberg, 1834) is highly sought after in the marine aquarium trade... more Abstract: Heteractis crispa (Ehrenberg, 1834) is highly sought after in the marine aquarium trade due to its association with anemonefish. Individuals have been sourced entirely from the wild, adversely impacting populations. This study presents the results of a 12-wk feeding experiment using 36 juvenile anemones grown in captivity since fertilization. The anemones were divided among three treatments (unfed, fed weekly, and fed three times weekly), and changes in size (wet weight, pedal disc, and oral disc diameter) were recorded. ...

Research paper thumbnail of Asexual Propagation of Sea Anemones That Host Anemonefishes: Implications for the Marine Ornamental Aquarium Trade and Restocking Programs

Anemonefishes and their host sea anemones form an iconic symbiotic association in reef environmen... more Anemonefishes and their host sea anemones form an iconic symbiotic association in reef environments, and are highly sought after in the marine aquarium trade. This study examines asexual propagation as a method for culturing a geographically widespread and commonly traded species of host sea anemone, Entacmaea quadricolor. Two experiments were done: the first to establish whether size or colour morph influenced survival after cutting into halves or quarters; and the second to see whether feeding was needed to maximise survival and growth after cutting. Survival rates were high in both experiments, with 89.3 and 93.8% of the anemones cut in half, and 62.5 and 80.4% cut in quarters surviving in experiments 1 and 2, respectively. Anemones that were cut in half were larger in size, and healed and grew quicker than those cut in quarters. However, even though survival was lower when the individuals were cut in quarters, this treatment produced the greatest number of anemones. Feeding increased oral disc diameter growth and reduced wet weight loss, but did not significantly influence pedal disc diameter. Given that the anemones took up to 56 d to form an off-centre mouth, it is highly likely that feeding may have produced greater effect if the experiment was run for longer. This low technology method of propagation could be used to produce individuals throughout the year and the anemones could then be used to supply the aquarium trade or restock depleted habitats, thus supporting biodiversity conservation in coral reef areas.

Research paper thumbnail of The effect of elevated nutrients and reduced salinity on scleractinian coral reproductive success

Research paper thumbnail of Abundance and diversity of anemonefishes and their host sea anemones at two mesophotic sites on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia

Anemonefishes and their host sea anemones are iconic inhabitants of coral reef ecosystems. While ... more Anemonefishes and their host sea anemones are iconic inhabitants of coral reef ecosystems. While studies have documented their abundance in shallow-water reef habitats in parts of the Indo-Pacific, none have examined these species on mesophotic reefs. In this study, we used autonomous underwater vehicle imagery to examine the abundance and diversity of anemones and anemonefishes at Viper Reef and Hydrographers Passage in the central Great Barrier Reef at depths between 50 and 65 m. A total of 37 host sea anemones (31 Entacmaea quadricolor and 6 Heteractis crispa) and 24 anemonefishes (23 Amphiprion akindynos and 1 A. perideraion) were observed. Densities were highest at Viper Reef, with 8.48 E. quadricolor and A. akindynos per 100 m2 of reef substratum. These results support the hypothesis that mesophotic reefs have many species common to shallow-water coral reefs and that many taxa may occur at depths greater than currently recognised.

Research paper thumbnail of Synchronous spawning of host sea anemones

Coral Reefs

Allen GR (1972) The anemonefishes: their classification and biology. TFH Publ Inc, Neptune City D... more Allen GR (1972) The anemonefishes: their classification and biology. TFH Publ Inc, Neptune City Dunn DF (1981) The clownfish sea anemones: Stichodactylidae (Coelenterata: Actiniaria) and other sea anemones symbiotic with pomacentrid fishes. Trans Am Philos Soc 71:1-115 Coral Reefs (2005) 24: 208

Research paper thumbnail of Observations on the feeding behaviour of resident anemonefish during host sea anemone spawning

Coral Reefs, Jan 1, 2006

The symbiotic relationship between anemonefish and their host sea anemones has generally been reg... more The symbiotic relationship between anemonefish and their host sea anemones has generally been regarded as mutualistic (Mariscal 1970; Godwin and Fautin 1992; Porat and Chadwick-Furman 2004; Holbrook and Schmitt 2005). However, the observations reported here suggest that this might not always be the case. On 5th January 2006, Stichodactyla haddoni was observed spawning approximately 20 min after sunset at Sandy Bottom, East Timor (8°33′50′′S, 125°24′27′′E). Spawning occurred 15 nights after the full moon, ...

Research paper thumbnail of Embryonic and larval development of the host sea anemones Entacmaea quadricolor and Heteractis crispa

The Biological Bulletin, Jan 1, 2007

Little information is available on the sexual reproductive biology of anemones that provide essen... more Little information is available on the sexual reproductive biology of anemones that provide essential habitat for anemonefish. Here we provide the first information on the surface ultrastructural and morphological changes during development of the embryos and planula larvae of Entacmaea quadricolor and Heteractis crispa, using light and scanning electron microscopy. Newly spawned eggs of E. quadricolor and H. crispa averaged 794 m and 589 m diameter, respectively, and were covered by many spires of microvilli that were evenly distributed over the egg surface, except for a single bare patch. Eggs of both species contained abundant zooxanthellae when spawned, indicating vertical transmission of symbionts. Fertilization was external, and the resulting embryos displayed superficial cleavage. As development continued, individual blastomeres became readily distinguishable and a round-toovoid blastula was formed, which flattened with further divisions. The edges of the blastula thickened, creating a concave-convex dish-shaped gastrula. The outer margins of the gastrula appeared to roll inward, leading to the formation of an oral pore and a ciliated planula larva. Larval motility and directional movement were first observed 36 h after spawning. E. quadricolor larval survival remained high during the first 4 d after spawning, then decreased rapidly.

Research paper thumbnail of Broadcast spawning of two species of sea anemone, Entacmaea quadricolor and Heteractis crispa, that host anemonefish

Invertebrate Reproduction & Development, Jan 1, 2007

As the sea anemones, Entacmaea quadricolor and Heteractis crispa, provide essential habitat for o... more As the sea anemones, Entacmaea quadricolor and Heteractis crispa, provide essential habitat for obligate symbiotic anemonefish, knowledge of their reproductive biology is crucial to their effective management and conservation. This paper provides the first detailed information on the spawning times, behaviour and mode of gamete release for these host anemone species. Anemones were collected from subtropical reefs in the Solitary Islands Marine Park, eastern Australia, and monitored in outdoor flow-through seawater tanks from 2003 to 2005. Sexually reproductive anemones were either male or female, releasing their gametes into the water column for external fertilisation and development. Spawning of both sexes was predominately synchronous and was restricted to a few nights each year during the austral summer and autumn. Males generally began to release gametes prior to females, suggesting that sperm or some associated product may trigger the females to spawn. Sperm were commonly released in milky white streams or clouds, whereas eggs were released singly or in large masses. Reproductive seasonality and synchrony of gamete release suggests that spawning in both species is coordinated by similar responses of individuals to a range of environmental factors such as seawater temperature, photoperiod and lunar cycles. Incorporating knowledge of the sexual reproductive biology of host sea anemones into management and conservation programs could help ensure the viability of their populations and their resident anemonefish.

Research paper thumbnail of Larval settlement and juvenile development of sea anemones that provide habitat for anemonefish

Marine Biology, Jan 1, 2008

Sea anemones that host obligate symbiotic ane-moneWsh are ecologically important throughout many ... more Sea anemones that host obligate symbiotic ane-moneWsh are ecologically important throughout many coral reef regions of the Indo-PaciWc. This study provides the Wrst quantitative data on larval settlement rates and juvenile development of two species of host sea anemone, Heteractis crispa and Entacmaea quadricolor. Larvae were reared from broadcast spawned gametes of sexually reproductive male and female anemones collected from the Solitary Islands Marine Park, NSW, Australia. Prior to the start of the experiments, H. crispa larvae were reared for 3 days after spawning in March 2004 and E. quadricolor larvae were reared for 4 days after spawning in February 2005. Larval settlement onto biologically conditioned terracotta tiles in outdoor Xow-through seawater aquaria was Wrst recorded 4 days after spawning for H. crispa and 5 days after spawning for E. quadricolor. Peak settlement occurred 10 days after spawning, with a mean of 33.4 and 50.3% of the original groups of 350 larvae in replicate tanks settling for H. crispa and E. quadricolor, respectively. Tentacles arose as outpocketings of the oral region, at Wrst appearing as small rounded buds. These buds elongated to form long, thin, tapering tentacles in H. crispa, whereas E. quadricolor tentacles had slight bulbs below the tips. Juvenile anemones, especially H. crispa, were found to have very diVerent colouration and markings when compared with adult anemones, and therefore the descriptions and images provided here will enable correct identiWcation of juvenile recruits.

Research paper thumbnail of Asexual Propagation of Sea Anemones That Host Anemonefishes: Implications for the Marine Ornamental Aquarium Trade and Restocking Programs

PLoS ONE, 2014

Anemonefishes and their host sea anemones form an iconic symbiotic association in reef environmen... more Anemonefishes and their host sea anemones form an iconic symbiotic association in reef environments, and are highly sought after in the marine aquarium trade. This study examines asexual propagation as a method for culturing a geographically widespread and commonly traded species of host sea anemone, Entacmaea quadricolor. Two experiments were done: the first to establish whether size or colour morph influenced survival after cutting into halves or quarters; and the second to see whether feeding was needed to maximise survival and growth after cutting. Survival rates were high in both experiments, with 89.3 and 93.8% of the anemones cut in half, and 62.5 and 80.4% cut in quarters surviving in experiments 1 and 2, respectively. Anemones that were cut in half were larger in size, and healed and grew quicker than those cut in quarters. However, even though survival was lower when the individuals were cut in quarters, this treatment produced the greatest number of anemones. Feeding increased oral disc diameter growth and reduced wet weight loss, but did not significantly influence pedal disc diameter. Given that the anemones took up to 56 d to form an off-centre mouth, it is highly likely that feeding may have produced greater effect if the experiment was run for longer. This low technology method of propagation could be used to produce individuals throughout the year and the anemones could then be used to supply the aquarium trade or restock depleted habitats, thus supporting biodiversity conservation in coral reef areas.

Research paper thumbnail of Microplastic ingestion rates are phenotype-dependent in juvenile anemonefish

Environmental Pollution, 2019

The potential influence of microplastic debris on marine organisms is an issue of great ecologica... more The potential influence of microplastic debris on marine organisms is an issue of great ecological and socioeconomic concern. Experiments exposing fishes and invertebrates to constant concentrations of microplastics often yield high variation in particle ingestion rates among individuals. Yet, despite an increasing interest in microplastic ingestion in the wild, the potential intrinsic drivers of inter-individual variation have received little attention so far. Here we assessed individual-level ingestion of Polyethylene microspheres by laboratory-reared juvenile anemonefish, Amphiprion ocellaris, in relation to (a) ambient particle concentrations and (b) repeatable behavioural traits. We show that microplastic ingestion is highly variable at all tested particle concentrations and that this variation can partially be explained by individual activity levels. Moreover, the relationship between ingestion and behavioural variation increased notably when only the most behaviourally consistent individuals (n ¼ 40 out of 60) were considered in the analysis. Our findings indicate that microplastic ingestion rates in juvenile reef fishes may be less dependent on ambient concentrations than expected; instead they are to some degree phenotype-dependent. Care should thus be taken when reporting mean responses to microplastic exposure treatments, because some individuals may not be affected in the same way as others due to differential ingestion behaviour. We also discuss potential ramifications of non-random ingestion variability on population-and community-level responses.

Research paper thumbnail of Anemonefish facilitate bleaching recovery in a host sea anemone

Scientific Reports

Ocean warming is causing the symbioses between cnidarians and their algal symbionts to breakdown ... more Ocean warming is causing the symbioses between cnidarians and their algal symbionts to breakdown more frequently, resulting in bleaching. For sea anemones, nutritional benefits derived from hosting anemonefishes increase their algal symbiont density. The sea anemone-anemonefish relationship could, therefore, facilitate bleaching recovery. To test this, bleached and unbleached sea anemones, both with and without anemonefish, were monitored in the laboratory. At the start of our experiment, algal symbiont density and colour score were lower in the bleached than unbleached sea anemones, whereas total chlorophyll remained similar. After 106 days, bleached sea anemones with anemonefish had an algal symbiont density and colour score equal to the controls (unbleached sea anemones and without anemonefish), indicating recovery had occurred. Furthermore, total chlorophyll was 66% higher in the bleached sea anemones with anemonefish than the controls. In contrast, recovery did not occur for th...

Research paper thumbnail of Reef fishes can recognize bleached habitat during settlement: sea anemone bleaching alters anemonefish host selection

Proceedings. Biological sciences / The Royal Society, May 25, 2016

Understanding how bleaching impacts the settlement of symbiotic habitat specialists and whether t... more Understanding how bleaching impacts the settlement of symbiotic habitat specialists and whether there is flexibility in settlement choices with regard to habitat quality is essential given our changing climate. We used five anemonefishes (Amphiprion clarkii, Amphiprion latezonatus, Amphiprion ocellaris, Amphiprion percula and Premnas biaculeatus) and three host sea anemones (Entacmaea quadricolor, Heteractis crispa and Heteractis magnifica) in paired-choice flume experiments to determine whether habitat naive juveniles have the olfactory capabilities to distinguish between unbleached and bleached hosts, and how this may affect settlement decisions. All anemonefishes were able to distinguish between bleached and unbleached hosts, and responded only to chemical cues from species-specific host anemones irrespective of health status, indicating a lack of flexibility in host use. While bleached hosts were selected as habitat, this occurred only when unbleached options were unavailable, w...

Research paper thumbnail of Comparative phylogeography of three host sea anemones in the Indo‐Pacific

Journal of Biogeography

This research was supported by the KAUST Office of Competitive Research Funds (OCRF) under Award ... more This research was supported by the KAUST Office of Competitive Research Funds (OCRF) under Award No. CRG-1-2012-BER-002 and baseline research funds to M.L.B. We thank Dr. Vanessa Robitzch Sierra (Universidad Austral de Chile) for her generous help with the genetic analysis of the specimens. We also thank the staff at the Bioscience CORE laboratory at King Abdullah University of Science and Technology for their sequencing support. Lastly, we are grateful to Dream Divers and many members of the Reef Ecology Lab at King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, past and present, for their logistical support. All specimens from the Red Sea and Djibouti were obtained in accordance with local regulations. For fieldwork in the Maldives conducted during the first Maldives Reef Biodiversity Workshop, we wish to thank the University of Milano-Bicocca Marine Research and High Education Centre in Magoodhoo, the Ministry of Fisheries and Agriculture, Republic of Aim The mutualistic relationship between anemones and anemonefishes is one of the most iconic examples of symbiosis. However, while anemonefishes have been extensively studied in terms of genetic connectivity, such information is lacking entirely for host sea anemones. Here, we provide the first information on the broad-scale population structure and phylogeographic patterns of three species of host sea anemone, Heteractis magnifica, Stichodactyla mertensii, and Entacmaea quadricolor. We evaluate if there is concordance in genetic structure across several distinct biogeographic areas within the Indo-Pacific region and to what extent the observed patterns may concur with those found for anemonefishes. Location Indo-Pacific, including the Red Sea. Taxon Heteractis magnifica, Stichodactyla mertensii, and Entacmaea quadricolor Methods Microsatellite markers and a combination of statistical methods including Bayesian clustering, Isolation by Distance (IBD), Analysis of Molecular Variance (AMOVA), and Principal Components Analysis (PCA) were used to determine population structure. The congruence among distance matrices method (CADM) was used to assess similarity in spatial genetic patterns among species. Results Significant population structure was identified in the three host anemone species. Each species is likely composed of at least two genetic clusters corresponding to two biogeographic regions, the Red Sea and the rest of the Indo-Pacific. Two of the three anemone species seem to be experiencing admixture where the two main clusters overlap (the Maldives). IBD analyses in the Red Sea revealed differences in gene flow among species, suggesting more limited dispersal potential for E. quadricolor than for S. mertensii and H. magnifica. Clonality is documented in S. mertensii for the first time. Main conclusions This research documents the genetic population structure for three ecologically important host sea anemones across the Indo-Pacific and provides valuable insights regarding their biogeography and evolution. Specifically, we found high levels of genetic divergence between populations across different biogeographic regions, suggesting different evolutionary lineages within species. At the same time, common geographic overlap of population structures suggests similar evolutionary histories among all three species. Interestingly, the observed patterns are congruent to some extent with structure reported for several anemonefish species, reflecting their close ecological association.

Research paper thumbnail of Southernmost records of the host sea anemone, Stichodactyla haddoni, and associated commensal shrimps in a climate change hotspot

Marine Biodiversity, 2014

Research paper thumbnail of Photochemical efficiency and antioxidant capacity in relation to Symbiodinium genotype and host phenotype in a symbiotic cnidarian

Marine Ecology Progress Series, 2014

Research paper thumbnail of Symbiont shuffling during thermal bleaching and recovery in the sea anemone Entacmaea quadricolor

Marine Biology, 2014

and 13.2 % in the control and bleached anemones, respectively. The increased relative abundance o... more and 13.2 % in the control and bleached anemones, respectively. The increased relative abundance of C25 to C3.25 after exposure to thermal stress may indicate that C3.25 performs poorly when temperature is elevated. Although no significant recovery in symbiont density was detected, a revival of the C3.25 genotype was found at day 117, which may indicate that it is either more competitive or has qualities that are beneficial to the symbiosis when thermal stress is no longer apparent. This work demonstrates the potential for this anemone species to shuffle its symbiont types in response to environmental change and could provide resilience during times of stress.

Research paper thumbnail of Trying to find Nemo: low abundance of sea anemones and anemonefishes on central and southern mid-shelf reefs in the Great Barrier Reef

Marine Biodiversity, 2014

Information on the abundance of species targeted for the marine aquarium trade is needed to help ... more Information on the abundance of species targeted for the marine aquarium trade is needed to help elucidate what levels of exploitation may be sustainable. Accordingly, this study documents the abundance and diversity of anemonefishes and their host sea anemones, which are highly sought after in the trade, using timed swims at seven mid-shelf reefs on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Three species of
anemone (Entacmaea quadricolor, n=49; Heteractis magnifica, n=7; Stichodactyla mertensii, n=3), and five species of anemonefishes were found (Amphiprion akindynos, n=12; A. perideraion, n=29; A. melanopus, n=11; Premnas biaculeatus, n=2). Many of the surveys sites (58 %) did not have anemones or anemonefishes, and at sites where they were present, numbers were generally low. Given these findings, it is essential that collection is carefully regulated to prevent localised extinctions and ensure that reproductive success is not adversely impacted.

Research paper thumbnail of Reduced salinity decreases the fertilization success and larval survival of two scleractinian coral species

Marine Environmental Research, 2013

Successful reproduction by scleractinian corals is essential for the maintenance of populations t... more Successful reproduction by scleractinian corals is essential for the maintenance of populations that form the foundation of coral reef ecosystems. Laboratory experiments were done to determine the effects of reduced salinity on the fertilization success and larval survival of two coral species, Platygyra daedalea and Acropora millepora, from the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Fertilization rates of P. daedalea and A. millepora were significantly reduced at 25.8 psu and 33.1 psu, respectively, and completed blocked at 18.4 psu for A. millepora. The estimated larval survival times were similar from 36.8 to 25.8 psu (P. daedalea 291e312 h, A. millepora 207e264 h), whereas the 18.4 psu treatment resulted in estimates of 153 h and 24 h for P. daedalea and A. millepora, respectively. These results demonstrate that reduced salinity is detrimental to the reproductive success of these corals, and if salinity is lowered by natural or anthropogenic sources during spawning, this would lead to decreased reproductive success and recruitment on reefs.

Research paper thumbnail of Symbiodinium diversity in the sea anemone Entacmaea quadricolor on the east Australian coast

Coral Reefs, 2013

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Research paper thumbnail of Effects of Feeding on the Growth Rates of Captive-Bred Heteractis crispa: A Popular Marine Ornamental for Aquariums

Bulletin of Marine Science, 2012

Abstract: Heteractis crispa (Ehrenberg, 1834) is highly sought after in the marine aquarium trade... more Abstract: Heteractis crispa (Ehrenberg, 1834) is highly sought after in the marine aquarium trade due to its association with anemonefish. Individuals have been sourced entirely from the wild, adversely impacting populations. This study presents the results of a 12-wk feeding experiment using 36 juvenile anemones grown in captivity since fertilization. The anemones were divided among three treatments (unfed, fed weekly, and fed three times weekly), and changes in size (wet weight, pedal disc, and oral disc diameter) were recorded. ...

Research paper thumbnail of Asexual Propagation of Sea Anemones That Host Anemonefishes: Implications for the Marine Ornamental Aquarium Trade and Restocking Programs

Anemonefishes and their host sea anemones form an iconic symbiotic association in reef environmen... more Anemonefishes and their host sea anemones form an iconic symbiotic association in reef environments, and are highly sought after in the marine aquarium trade. This study examines asexual propagation as a method for culturing a geographically widespread and commonly traded species of host sea anemone, Entacmaea quadricolor. Two experiments were done: the first to establish whether size or colour morph influenced survival after cutting into halves or quarters; and the second to see whether feeding was needed to maximise survival and growth after cutting. Survival rates were high in both experiments, with 89.3 and 93.8% of the anemones cut in half, and 62.5 and 80.4% cut in quarters surviving in experiments 1 and 2, respectively. Anemones that were cut in half were larger in size, and healed and grew quicker than those cut in quarters. However, even though survival was lower when the individuals were cut in quarters, this treatment produced the greatest number of anemones. Feeding increased oral disc diameter growth and reduced wet weight loss, but did not significantly influence pedal disc diameter. Given that the anemones took up to 56 d to form an off-centre mouth, it is highly likely that feeding may have produced greater effect if the experiment was run for longer. This low technology method of propagation could be used to produce individuals throughout the year and the anemones could then be used to supply the aquarium trade or restock depleted habitats, thus supporting biodiversity conservation in coral reef areas.

Research paper thumbnail of The effect of elevated nutrients and reduced salinity on scleractinian coral reproductive success

Research paper thumbnail of Abundance and diversity of anemonefishes and their host sea anemones at two mesophotic sites on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia

Anemonefishes and their host sea anemones are iconic inhabitants of coral reef ecosystems. While ... more Anemonefishes and their host sea anemones are iconic inhabitants of coral reef ecosystems. While studies have documented their abundance in shallow-water reef habitats in parts of the Indo-Pacific, none have examined these species on mesophotic reefs. In this study, we used autonomous underwater vehicle imagery to examine the abundance and diversity of anemones and anemonefishes at Viper Reef and Hydrographers Passage in the central Great Barrier Reef at depths between 50 and 65 m. A total of 37 host sea anemones (31 Entacmaea quadricolor and 6 Heteractis crispa) and 24 anemonefishes (23 Amphiprion akindynos and 1 A. perideraion) were observed. Densities were highest at Viper Reef, with 8.48 E. quadricolor and A. akindynos per 100 m2 of reef substratum. These results support the hypothesis that mesophotic reefs have many species common to shallow-water coral reefs and that many taxa may occur at depths greater than currently recognised.

Research paper thumbnail of Synchronous spawning of host sea anemones

Coral Reefs

Allen GR (1972) The anemonefishes: their classification and biology. TFH Publ Inc, Neptune City D... more Allen GR (1972) The anemonefishes: their classification and biology. TFH Publ Inc, Neptune City Dunn DF (1981) The clownfish sea anemones: Stichodactylidae (Coelenterata: Actiniaria) and other sea anemones symbiotic with pomacentrid fishes. Trans Am Philos Soc 71:1-115 Coral Reefs (2005) 24: 208

Research paper thumbnail of Observations on the feeding behaviour of resident anemonefish during host sea anemone spawning

Coral Reefs, Jan 1, 2006

The symbiotic relationship between anemonefish and their host sea anemones has generally been reg... more The symbiotic relationship between anemonefish and their host sea anemones has generally been regarded as mutualistic (Mariscal 1970; Godwin and Fautin 1992; Porat and Chadwick-Furman 2004; Holbrook and Schmitt 2005). However, the observations reported here suggest that this might not always be the case. On 5th January 2006, Stichodactyla haddoni was observed spawning approximately 20 min after sunset at Sandy Bottom, East Timor (8°33′50′′S, 125°24′27′′E). Spawning occurred 15 nights after the full moon, ...

Research paper thumbnail of Embryonic and larval development of the host sea anemones Entacmaea quadricolor and Heteractis crispa

The Biological Bulletin, Jan 1, 2007

Little information is available on the sexual reproductive biology of anemones that provide essen... more Little information is available on the sexual reproductive biology of anemones that provide essential habitat for anemonefish. Here we provide the first information on the surface ultrastructural and morphological changes during development of the embryos and planula larvae of Entacmaea quadricolor and Heteractis crispa, using light and scanning electron microscopy. Newly spawned eggs of E. quadricolor and H. crispa averaged 794 m and 589 m diameter, respectively, and were covered by many spires of microvilli that were evenly distributed over the egg surface, except for a single bare patch. Eggs of both species contained abundant zooxanthellae when spawned, indicating vertical transmission of symbionts. Fertilization was external, and the resulting embryos displayed superficial cleavage. As development continued, individual blastomeres became readily distinguishable and a round-toovoid blastula was formed, which flattened with further divisions. The edges of the blastula thickened, creating a concave-convex dish-shaped gastrula. The outer margins of the gastrula appeared to roll inward, leading to the formation of an oral pore and a ciliated planula larva. Larval motility and directional movement were first observed 36 h after spawning. E. quadricolor larval survival remained high during the first 4 d after spawning, then decreased rapidly.

Research paper thumbnail of Broadcast spawning of two species of sea anemone, Entacmaea quadricolor and Heteractis crispa, that host anemonefish

Invertebrate Reproduction & Development, Jan 1, 2007

As the sea anemones, Entacmaea quadricolor and Heteractis crispa, provide essential habitat for o... more As the sea anemones, Entacmaea quadricolor and Heteractis crispa, provide essential habitat for obligate symbiotic anemonefish, knowledge of their reproductive biology is crucial to their effective management and conservation. This paper provides the first detailed information on the spawning times, behaviour and mode of gamete release for these host anemone species. Anemones were collected from subtropical reefs in the Solitary Islands Marine Park, eastern Australia, and monitored in outdoor flow-through seawater tanks from 2003 to 2005. Sexually reproductive anemones were either male or female, releasing their gametes into the water column for external fertilisation and development. Spawning of both sexes was predominately synchronous and was restricted to a few nights each year during the austral summer and autumn. Males generally began to release gametes prior to females, suggesting that sperm or some associated product may trigger the females to spawn. Sperm were commonly released in milky white streams or clouds, whereas eggs were released singly or in large masses. Reproductive seasonality and synchrony of gamete release suggests that spawning in both species is coordinated by similar responses of individuals to a range of environmental factors such as seawater temperature, photoperiod and lunar cycles. Incorporating knowledge of the sexual reproductive biology of host sea anemones into management and conservation programs could help ensure the viability of their populations and their resident anemonefish.

Research paper thumbnail of Larval settlement and juvenile development of sea anemones that provide habitat for anemonefish

Marine Biology, Jan 1, 2008

Sea anemones that host obligate symbiotic ane-moneWsh are ecologically important throughout many ... more Sea anemones that host obligate symbiotic ane-moneWsh are ecologically important throughout many coral reef regions of the Indo-PaciWc. This study provides the Wrst quantitative data on larval settlement rates and juvenile development of two species of host sea anemone, Heteractis crispa and Entacmaea quadricolor. Larvae were reared from broadcast spawned gametes of sexually reproductive male and female anemones collected from the Solitary Islands Marine Park, NSW, Australia. Prior to the start of the experiments, H. crispa larvae were reared for 3 days after spawning in March 2004 and E. quadricolor larvae were reared for 4 days after spawning in February 2005. Larval settlement onto biologically conditioned terracotta tiles in outdoor Xow-through seawater aquaria was Wrst recorded 4 days after spawning for H. crispa and 5 days after spawning for E. quadricolor. Peak settlement occurred 10 days after spawning, with a mean of 33.4 and 50.3% of the original groups of 350 larvae in replicate tanks settling for H. crispa and E. quadricolor, respectively. Tentacles arose as outpocketings of the oral region, at Wrst appearing as small rounded buds. These buds elongated to form long, thin, tapering tentacles in H. crispa, whereas E. quadricolor tentacles had slight bulbs below the tips. Juvenile anemones, especially H. crispa, were found to have very diVerent colouration and markings when compared with adult anemones, and therefore the descriptions and images provided here will enable correct identiWcation of juvenile recruits.