April Shemak | Sam Houston State University (original) (raw)
Books by April Shemak
Offering the first interdisciplinary study of refugees in the Caribbean, Central America, and the... more Offering the first interdisciplinary study of refugees in the Caribbean, Central America, and the United States, Asylum Speakers relates current theoretical debates about hospitality and cosmopolitanism to the actual conditions of refugees. In doing so, the author weighs the questions of “truth value” associated with various modes of witnessing to explore the function of testimonial discourse in constructing refugee subjectivity in New World cultural and
political formations.
By examining literary works by such writers as Edwidge Danticat, Nikòl Payen, Kamau Brathwaite, Francisco Goldman, Julia Alvarez, Ivonne Lamazares, and Cecilia Rodríguez Milanés, theoretical work by Jacques Derrida, Edouard Glissant, and Wilson Harris, as well as human rights documents, government documents, photography, and historical studies, Asylum Speakers constructs a complex picture of New World refugees that expands current discussions of diaspora and migration, demonstrating that the peripheral nature of refugee testimonial narratives requires us to reshape the boundaries of U.S. ethnic and postcolonial studies.
Papers by April Shemak
Postcolonial Text, Jun 27, 2006
Page 1. 1 Postcolonial Text Vol 2, No 3 (2006) Postcolonial Text, Vol 2, No 3 (2006) A Wounded Di... more Page 1. 1 Postcolonial Text Vol 2, No 3 (2006) Postcolonial Text, Vol 2, No 3 (2006) A Wounded Discourse: The Poetics of Disease in Cristina Garcia's Dreaming in Cuban April A. Shemak Sam Houston State University After ...
Routledge eBooks, Feb 6, 2023
Volume I Alphabetical list of Entries Thematic List of Entries Associate Editors List of Contribu... more Volume I Alphabetical list of Entries Thematic List of Entries Associate Editors List of Contributors Introduction Sangeeta Ray Introduction Henry Schwarz Postcolonial Studies A-G [tbc] Volume II Poscolonial Studies H-R [tbc] Volume III Postcolonial Studies S-Z [tbc] Index
The Encyclopedia of Postcolonial Studies
NACLA Report on the Americas, 2021
The United States military base at Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, came under scrutiny in the early 1990s w... more The United States military base at Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, came under scrutiny in the early 1990s when it served as the site of detention for Haitian and Cuban refugees brought there following their interdiction at sea by the U.S. Coast Guard. Typically, after a few months at Guantánamo, Cuban refugees were taken to the U.S. mainland, where they received political asylum because they were seen as refugees fleeing a communist nation. Haitian refugees often languished much longer at Guantánamo, and few were granted asylum in the United States. Most often, Haitians would be repatriated even though they were escaping brutal violence due to political conflict.1 One of the obstacles that Haitian refugees faced was that they systematically were not seen as political refugees in the U.S. asylum process. By allowing a space for Haitian refugee testimony, the Guantánamo Public Memory Project attempts to, among other things, rectify the governmental silencing of Haitian refugee voices and compli...
Caribbean Quarterly, 2014
Bodies broken, scattered, bruised.Can you call their names? Who aretheir parents? What are the na... more Bodies broken, scattered, bruised.Can you call their names? Who aretheir parents? What are the namesyou are ashamed to call?...How to pretend not to knowof the raw wound in a nationdivided?-Merle Collins, "Roll Call"IN 2001, A TRUTH AND RECONCILIATION commission was established in Grenada as a means to address unresolved tensions in the population surrounding the murders of Maurice Bishop and other Grenadians on 19 October 1983, and other events of national significance. Prime Minister Keith Mitchell contended that a commission modelled after the South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission's notion of restorative justice would provide a way for the nation to address its past, suture deep wounds in the population, and answer lingering questions. The South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission is one of the most famous examples of restorative justice, having been established to address the atrocities of apartheid. It is drawn on the Christian idea of forgiveness and the notion of Ubuntu, a word from the Nguni language family, which means that the individual is always seen in relation to what is best for the group.1 At its core, this form of restorative justice has a moral imperative of creating a space where past crimes are revealed and acknowledged in order for the nation to move forward in the name of restoring a sense of unity, reconciliation, and forgiveness. In its published report, the Grenada Truth and Reconciliation Commission states that it aims "to provide the nation an opportunity to become genuinely reconciled and permanently healed".2The commission focused on the period of January 1976 to December 1991, examining, among other things, the evidence of violence surrounding the overthrow of the government of Eric Gairy, which ushered in the New Jewel Movement; the People's Revolutionary Government during its time in power; and the events of October 1983. Primary concerns of the commission included determining the location of the remains of Maurice Bishop and others who were killed during the coup of 19 October, determining reparations for victims of violence, and examining of the case of the Grenada 17, those people who were imprisoned for the killings of Bishop and others. Between October 2001 and August 2002, the commission accumulated information through public hearings, letters, and various public outreach programmes, visiting family members of victims who died as a result of violence, circulating questionnaires, and researching publications and studies of the time period. Approximately seventy people gave oral testimony. After assessing the problems that needed to be addressed, the commission ultimately made a number of recommendations such as erecting memorials to those who died of political violence, renaming the airport after Maurice Bishop, and finding the remains of Bishop and other missing victims.3 As such, the commission's report, which was released in 2006 after much delay, represents a means of national reconciliation intent on resurrecting the nation, and performing national memory, while also constructing an official narrative about Grenada's traumatic history.-* Yet scholars David Scott and Jermaine McCalpin contend that the Grenada Truth and Reconciliation Commission largely failed in its mission of national reconciliation. McCalpin notes that many of the Grenadians he interviewed were unaware of the commission, which leads one to ask, whose memories are included?* Whose are not? David Scott asserts that the commission was a failure because "it offers precious little of any substantial 'truths' by which to guide the prospect of the 'reconciliation' they hope for".6 He notes that a glaring omission in the commission's report is the absence of testimonies of the Grenada 17.It is within this context of the troubled search for truth, reconciliation and memory that I examine the 2011 reissuing of Grenadian writer Merle Collins's novel Angel, whose eponymous protagonist comes of age during the revolutionary period as a member of the progressive Horizon Party. …
The Encyclopedia of Global Human Migration, 2013
The 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees initially focused primarily on refugees in... more The 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees initially focused primarily on refugees in Europe following World War II, largely ignoring the crises of displacement and forced migration occurring through decolonization in the developing world. There is a growing body of postcolonial literature that represents the experiences of refugees across the postcolonial world after World War II. Postcolonial refugee narratives can be defined as prose narratives (novels, short stories, memoirs) by and about refugees fleeing nations of origin that have a history of European colonialism. In these narratives, the conditions of the nation of origin exist in some form of political and/or economic crisis, sometimes as a direct result of colonial rule, neocolonialism, or decolonization. Postcolonial refugee narratives represent a genre of literature that highlights the human rights issues facing stateless persons. Keeping in mind that refugees are not a monolithic group, but originate from many regions and speak numerous languages, I will address some refugee narratives written in English. Frequently associated with the “masses,” refugees are often portrayed in the media as downtrodden, voiceless victims, thus, it is important to consider how literary narratives attempt to give voice to refugees, and/or mark their exclusion from dominant discourses. Keywords: political asylum; immigration; globalization; transnationalism; poverty
New West Indian Guide / Nieuwe West-Indische Gids, 2013
Cultural Dynamics, 2014
This article examines the post-earthquake politics of space via the literal and cultural mapping ... more This article examines the post-earthquake politics of space via the literal and cultural mapping of internally displaced persons in Haiti to consider the cartographic dimensions of humanitarian biopower. I begin by analyzing OpenStreetMap Haiti, an online collaborative cartographic project, which mapped Haiti’s roads and refugee camps after the earthquake by using high-resolution satellite imagery, global positioning system technologies, and aerial photographs—much of which is derived from US military data—in order to facilitate “humanitarian” efforts on the ground. I contend that the visual text produced by OpenStreetMap Haiti, which functions as a map to locate and situate refugees, represents a particular form of humanitarian biopower. In the second half of this article, I analyze a 2012 work of comics journalism titled Tents beyond Tents, which offers a critique of humanitarian “aid” from the perspective of Haitians who occupy the internally displaced persons camps created after...
Postcolonial Text, 2006
Page 1. 1 Postcolonial Text Vol 2, No 3 (2006) Postcolonial Text, Vol 2, No 3 (2006) A Wounded Di... more Page 1. 1 Postcolonial Text Vol 2, No 3 (2006) Postcolonial Text, Vol 2, No 3 (2006) A Wounded Discourse: The Poetics of Disease in Cristina Garcia's Dreaming in Cuban April A. Shemak Sam Houston State University After ...
For the last several decades, the military ship has played a key role in steering and controlling... more For the last several decades, the military ship has played a key role in steering and controlling the attempts of scores of thousands of undocumented, clandestine maritime migrants to make it to the US mainland, Puerto Rico and other parts of the Caribbean. Given the military control over the waters, it is difficult to obtain testimony of refugees and migrants at the time of interdiction. How do Caribbean people imagine and represent the encounter of the migrant/refugee vessel and the military ship? The vignettes offered in this paper consider four examples of contemporary encounters between Caribbean boat refugees and migrants and military power.
The United States military base at Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, came under scrutiny in the early 1990s w... more The United States military base at Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, came under scrutiny in the early 1990s when it served as the site of detention for Haitian and Cuban refugees brought there following their interdiction at sea by the U.S. Coast Guard. Typically, after a few months at Guantánamo, Cuban refugees were taken to the U.S. mainland, where they received political asylum because they were seen as refugees fleeing a communist nation. Haitian refugees often languished much longer at Guantánamo, and few were granted asylum in the United States. Most often, Haitians would be repatriated even though they were escaping brutal violence due to political conflict. 1 One of the obstacles that Haitian refugees faced was that they systematically were not seen as political refugees in the U.S. asylum process. By allowing a space for Haitian refugee testimony, the Guantánamo Public Memory Project attempts to, among other things, rectify the governmental silencing of Haitian refugee voices and complicate U.S. "public memory" by gathering oral histories of those people who were detained at Guantánamo. 2 Individual memory is highly contested: shaped by trauma, language, and the passage of time, the memories archived in this public memory project cannot ever fully capture Haitian refugee experiences at Guantánamo. 3 Moreover, refugee testimonies share the same digital space of the project with those who worked at the naval base, whether as U.S. military personnel or as Cuban workers. I examine the Guantánamo Public Memory Project by contrasting the fragmented testimonies of Haitian refugees with the authoritative linear oral history of a U.S. military commander at the Guantánamo military detention center. The Haitian American siblings Natalie and Gregory Beaubrun offer testimonies to their childhood experiences of becoming boat refugees seeking asylum in the United States in 1994. Their segment, titled "memories of remembering," demonstrates the fractures surrounding their distant memories. Gregory recalls moments of the precarious sea journey and the violence that his family experienced in Haiti, and Natalie's recollections focus mostly on a book about her family, A Haitian Family, that she encountered when it was assigned reading in her U.S. elementary classroom. The book is a kind of anthropological text meant to educate U.S. schoolchildren about Haitian refugees; as such, it holds a powerful textual authority endorsed by the U.S. education system. Natalie recalls, "It feels weird that everybody is telling your history and you don't even know about it?" She later declares, "I don't have memory about it, but reading it. .. I put myself there, too." Discovering a version of her
Cultural Dynamics
This article examines the idea of home in relation to care work performed by refugee women of the... more This article examines the idea of home in relation to care work performed by refugee women of the African Diaspora as portrayed in Évelyne Trouillot's post-dictatorship novel Memory at Bay (2015) (published in French as La mémoire aux abois (2010). Memory at Bay depicts care work as the labor involved in attending to the needs of patients in a nursing facility on the outskirts of Paris. Through her work as a nurse's aide in this facility, Marie-Ange confronts her mother's memories of a traumatic past living under a dictatorship in Quisqueya (a fictionalization of the Duvalier regime in Haiti). Trouillot's novel asks us to consider what it means for a female refugee to offer care work while still coming to terms with the traumatic past in her nation of origin.
New West Indian Guide
This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the prevailing CC-BY-NC license at ... more This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the prevailing CC-BY-NC license at the time of publication.
New West Indian Guide / Nieuwe West-Indische Gids, 2016
Offering the first interdisciplinary study of refugees in the Caribbean, Central America, and the... more Offering the first interdisciplinary study of refugees in the Caribbean, Central America, and the United States, Asylum Speakers relates current theoretical debates about hospitality and cosmopolitanism to the actual conditions of refugees. In doing so, the author weighs the questions of “truth value” associated with various modes of witnessing to explore the function of testimonial discourse in constructing refugee subjectivity in New World cultural and
political formations.
By examining literary works by such writers as Edwidge Danticat, Nikòl Payen, Kamau Brathwaite, Francisco Goldman, Julia Alvarez, Ivonne Lamazares, and Cecilia Rodríguez Milanés, theoretical work by Jacques Derrida, Edouard Glissant, and Wilson Harris, as well as human rights documents, government documents, photography, and historical studies, Asylum Speakers constructs a complex picture of New World refugees that expands current discussions of diaspora and migration, demonstrating that the peripheral nature of refugee testimonial narratives requires us to reshape the boundaries of U.S. ethnic and postcolonial studies.
Postcolonial Text, Jun 27, 2006
Page 1. 1 Postcolonial Text Vol 2, No 3 (2006) Postcolonial Text, Vol 2, No 3 (2006) A Wounded Di... more Page 1. 1 Postcolonial Text Vol 2, No 3 (2006) Postcolonial Text, Vol 2, No 3 (2006) A Wounded Discourse: The Poetics of Disease in Cristina Garcia's Dreaming in Cuban April A. Shemak Sam Houston State University After ...
Routledge eBooks, Feb 6, 2023
Volume I Alphabetical list of Entries Thematic List of Entries Associate Editors List of Contribu... more Volume I Alphabetical list of Entries Thematic List of Entries Associate Editors List of Contributors Introduction Sangeeta Ray Introduction Henry Schwarz Postcolonial Studies A-G [tbc] Volume II Poscolonial Studies H-R [tbc] Volume III Postcolonial Studies S-Z [tbc] Index
The Encyclopedia of Postcolonial Studies
NACLA Report on the Americas, 2021
The United States military base at Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, came under scrutiny in the early 1990s w... more The United States military base at Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, came under scrutiny in the early 1990s when it served as the site of detention for Haitian and Cuban refugees brought there following their interdiction at sea by the U.S. Coast Guard. Typically, after a few months at Guantánamo, Cuban refugees were taken to the U.S. mainland, where they received political asylum because they were seen as refugees fleeing a communist nation. Haitian refugees often languished much longer at Guantánamo, and few were granted asylum in the United States. Most often, Haitians would be repatriated even though they were escaping brutal violence due to political conflict.1 One of the obstacles that Haitian refugees faced was that they systematically were not seen as political refugees in the U.S. asylum process. By allowing a space for Haitian refugee testimony, the Guantánamo Public Memory Project attempts to, among other things, rectify the governmental silencing of Haitian refugee voices and compli...
Caribbean Quarterly, 2014
Bodies broken, scattered, bruised.Can you call their names? Who aretheir parents? What are the na... more Bodies broken, scattered, bruised.Can you call their names? Who aretheir parents? What are the namesyou are ashamed to call?...How to pretend not to knowof the raw wound in a nationdivided?-Merle Collins, "Roll Call"IN 2001, A TRUTH AND RECONCILIATION commission was established in Grenada as a means to address unresolved tensions in the population surrounding the murders of Maurice Bishop and other Grenadians on 19 October 1983, and other events of national significance. Prime Minister Keith Mitchell contended that a commission modelled after the South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission's notion of restorative justice would provide a way for the nation to address its past, suture deep wounds in the population, and answer lingering questions. The South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission is one of the most famous examples of restorative justice, having been established to address the atrocities of apartheid. It is drawn on the Christian idea of forgiveness and the notion of Ubuntu, a word from the Nguni language family, which means that the individual is always seen in relation to what is best for the group.1 At its core, this form of restorative justice has a moral imperative of creating a space where past crimes are revealed and acknowledged in order for the nation to move forward in the name of restoring a sense of unity, reconciliation, and forgiveness. In its published report, the Grenada Truth and Reconciliation Commission states that it aims "to provide the nation an opportunity to become genuinely reconciled and permanently healed".2The commission focused on the period of January 1976 to December 1991, examining, among other things, the evidence of violence surrounding the overthrow of the government of Eric Gairy, which ushered in the New Jewel Movement; the People's Revolutionary Government during its time in power; and the events of October 1983. Primary concerns of the commission included determining the location of the remains of Maurice Bishop and others who were killed during the coup of 19 October, determining reparations for victims of violence, and examining of the case of the Grenada 17, those people who were imprisoned for the killings of Bishop and others. Between October 2001 and August 2002, the commission accumulated information through public hearings, letters, and various public outreach programmes, visiting family members of victims who died as a result of violence, circulating questionnaires, and researching publications and studies of the time period. Approximately seventy people gave oral testimony. After assessing the problems that needed to be addressed, the commission ultimately made a number of recommendations such as erecting memorials to those who died of political violence, renaming the airport after Maurice Bishop, and finding the remains of Bishop and other missing victims.3 As such, the commission's report, which was released in 2006 after much delay, represents a means of national reconciliation intent on resurrecting the nation, and performing national memory, while also constructing an official narrative about Grenada's traumatic history.-* Yet scholars David Scott and Jermaine McCalpin contend that the Grenada Truth and Reconciliation Commission largely failed in its mission of national reconciliation. McCalpin notes that many of the Grenadians he interviewed were unaware of the commission, which leads one to ask, whose memories are included?* Whose are not? David Scott asserts that the commission was a failure because "it offers precious little of any substantial 'truths' by which to guide the prospect of the 'reconciliation' they hope for".6 He notes that a glaring omission in the commission's report is the absence of testimonies of the Grenada 17.It is within this context of the troubled search for truth, reconciliation and memory that I examine the 2011 reissuing of Grenadian writer Merle Collins's novel Angel, whose eponymous protagonist comes of age during the revolutionary period as a member of the progressive Horizon Party. …
The Encyclopedia of Global Human Migration, 2013
The 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees initially focused primarily on refugees in... more The 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees initially focused primarily on refugees in Europe following World War II, largely ignoring the crises of displacement and forced migration occurring through decolonization in the developing world. There is a growing body of postcolonial literature that represents the experiences of refugees across the postcolonial world after World War II. Postcolonial refugee narratives can be defined as prose narratives (novels, short stories, memoirs) by and about refugees fleeing nations of origin that have a history of European colonialism. In these narratives, the conditions of the nation of origin exist in some form of political and/or economic crisis, sometimes as a direct result of colonial rule, neocolonialism, or decolonization. Postcolonial refugee narratives represent a genre of literature that highlights the human rights issues facing stateless persons. Keeping in mind that refugees are not a monolithic group, but originate from many regions and speak numerous languages, I will address some refugee narratives written in English. Frequently associated with the “masses,” refugees are often portrayed in the media as downtrodden, voiceless victims, thus, it is important to consider how literary narratives attempt to give voice to refugees, and/or mark their exclusion from dominant discourses. Keywords: political asylum; immigration; globalization; transnationalism; poverty
New West Indian Guide / Nieuwe West-Indische Gids, 2013
Cultural Dynamics, 2014
This article examines the post-earthquake politics of space via the literal and cultural mapping ... more This article examines the post-earthquake politics of space via the literal and cultural mapping of internally displaced persons in Haiti to consider the cartographic dimensions of humanitarian biopower. I begin by analyzing OpenStreetMap Haiti, an online collaborative cartographic project, which mapped Haiti’s roads and refugee camps after the earthquake by using high-resolution satellite imagery, global positioning system technologies, and aerial photographs—much of which is derived from US military data—in order to facilitate “humanitarian” efforts on the ground. I contend that the visual text produced by OpenStreetMap Haiti, which functions as a map to locate and situate refugees, represents a particular form of humanitarian biopower. In the second half of this article, I analyze a 2012 work of comics journalism titled Tents beyond Tents, which offers a critique of humanitarian “aid” from the perspective of Haitians who occupy the internally displaced persons camps created after...
Postcolonial Text, 2006
Page 1. 1 Postcolonial Text Vol 2, No 3 (2006) Postcolonial Text, Vol 2, No 3 (2006) A Wounded Di... more Page 1. 1 Postcolonial Text Vol 2, No 3 (2006) Postcolonial Text, Vol 2, No 3 (2006) A Wounded Discourse: The Poetics of Disease in Cristina Garcia's Dreaming in Cuban April A. Shemak Sam Houston State University After ...
For the last several decades, the military ship has played a key role in steering and controlling... more For the last several decades, the military ship has played a key role in steering and controlling the attempts of scores of thousands of undocumented, clandestine maritime migrants to make it to the US mainland, Puerto Rico and other parts of the Caribbean. Given the military control over the waters, it is difficult to obtain testimony of refugees and migrants at the time of interdiction. How do Caribbean people imagine and represent the encounter of the migrant/refugee vessel and the military ship? The vignettes offered in this paper consider four examples of contemporary encounters between Caribbean boat refugees and migrants and military power.
The United States military base at Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, came under scrutiny in the early 1990s w... more The United States military base at Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, came under scrutiny in the early 1990s when it served as the site of detention for Haitian and Cuban refugees brought there following their interdiction at sea by the U.S. Coast Guard. Typically, after a few months at Guantánamo, Cuban refugees were taken to the U.S. mainland, where they received political asylum because they were seen as refugees fleeing a communist nation. Haitian refugees often languished much longer at Guantánamo, and few were granted asylum in the United States. Most often, Haitians would be repatriated even though they were escaping brutal violence due to political conflict. 1 One of the obstacles that Haitian refugees faced was that they systematically were not seen as political refugees in the U.S. asylum process. By allowing a space for Haitian refugee testimony, the Guantánamo Public Memory Project attempts to, among other things, rectify the governmental silencing of Haitian refugee voices and complicate U.S. "public memory" by gathering oral histories of those people who were detained at Guantánamo. 2 Individual memory is highly contested: shaped by trauma, language, and the passage of time, the memories archived in this public memory project cannot ever fully capture Haitian refugee experiences at Guantánamo. 3 Moreover, refugee testimonies share the same digital space of the project with those who worked at the naval base, whether as U.S. military personnel or as Cuban workers. I examine the Guantánamo Public Memory Project by contrasting the fragmented testimonies of Haitian refugees with the authoritative linear oral history of a U.S. military commander at the Guantánamo military detention center. The Haitian American siblings Natalie and Gregory Beaubrun offer testimonies to their childhood experiences of becoming boat refugees seeking asylum in the United States in 1994. Their segment, titled "memories of remembering," demonstrates the fractures surrounding their distant memories. Gregory recalls moments of the precarious sea journey and the violence that his family experienced in Haiti, and Natalie's recollections focus mostly on a book about her family, A Haitian Family, that she encountered when it was assigned reading in her U.S. elementary classroom. The book is a kind of anthropological text meant to educate U.S. schoolchildren about Haitian refugees; as such, it holds a powerful textual authority endorsed by the U.S. education system. Natalie recalls, "It feels weird that everybody is telling your history and you don't even know about it?" She later declares, "I don't have memory about it, but reading it. .. I put myself there, too." Discovering a version of her
Cultural Dynamics
This article examines the idea of home in relation to care work performed by refugee women of the... more This article examines the idea of home in relation to care work performed by refugee women of the African Diaspora as portrayed in Évelyne Trouillot's post-dictatorship novel Memory at Bay (2015) (published in French as La mémoire aux abois (2010). Memory at Bay depicts care work as the labor involved in attending to the needs of patients in a nursing facility on the outskirts of Paris. Through her work as a nurse's aide in this facility, Marie-Ange confronts her mother's memories of a traumatic past living under a dictatorship in Quisqueya (a fictionalization of the Duvalier regime in Haiti). Trouillot's novel asks us to consider what it means for a female refugee to offer care work while still coming to terms with the traumatic past in her nation of origin.
New West Indian Guide
This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the prevailing CC-BY-NC license at ... more This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the prevailing CC-BY-NC license at the time of publication.
New West Indian Guide / Nieuwe West-Indische Gids, 2016
Anthurium a Caribbean Studies Journal, 2012
© 2011 Fordham University Press All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduce... more © 2011 Fordham University Press All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any meanselectronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording, or any otherexcept for brief ...
