Julia Sallabank | SOAS University of London (original) (raw)
Papers by Julia Sallabank
All African languages, from the largest to the smallest, exist with very minor or no institutiona... more All African languages, from the largest to the smallest, exist with very minor or no institutional support in self-sustained language ecologies. Only languages of colonial pedigree are recognized as official languages and used widely in formal domains. South Africa, which has recognized 11 languages as official languages and is investing in their use in formal education is the only exception to this observation. While the continent has its share of endangered and moribund languages (for a recent overview see Dimmendaal and Voeltz 2007; Sands 2009), many small African languages belong to the category of threatened languages. These languages are spoken by vital rural communities that are vulnerable to external threats resulting in their dissolution, such as (forced) migration to flee political unrest, escape the consequences of climate change or participate in the salaried labour market (Dimmendaal 2008; Mous 2003; Lüpke 2015a; Vigouroux and Mufwene 2008 inter alia). These movements weaken the rural communities that are the home bases for small languages and lead to the forging of new ethnolinguistic identities of their urban diaspora speakers.
Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development
Revitalizing Endangered Languages
Local languages have been falling into disuse and becoming forgotten in an increasingly accelerat... more Local languages have been falling into disuse and becoming forgotten in an increasingly accelerating pace over the last century or so: media and scientific reports keep reminding us, with quite alarming statistics. However, the last few decades have also witnessed another steadily growing trend: initiatives, both grassroots and top-down, to counteract the devastating loss of linguistic diversity and to promote multilingualism and the use of local languages. There have been programs and activities that can be considered real success stories or at least important steps toward them, even if revitalizing and supporting endangered languages is a never-ending task. But it is a task that can be planned, implemented, evaluated, and brought into a next stage thanks to this growing body of individual and collective experience and generated knowledge. This book is meant for anyone who feels concern or even pain because of the loss they and their communities might face; it is for people who experience joy when speaking their languages and want to have them heard, spoken, and strong. It is for people who learned their languages, or who wish to learn them, from their parents, grandparents, community members, or on their own. It is also for people who want to pass their ways of speaking to children and peers. As an Indigenous teacher in the Navajo reservations recently shared with one of us, the most committed parents wanting their children to learn the ancestral Diné language were those who grew up in borderland towns and lost it themselves. Loss can be an empowering stimulus to act. It can also lead to a profound joy of reclaiming a language, learning, speaking, and passing the language to other people, to experiencing the world through its unique perspective, to accessing the knowledge generated and transmitted by the ancestors. But language revitalization is not about going back to the past; it is about acting in the present and heading toward the future, recognizing that the past provides an important foundation and stimulus to achieve it. 1
Transmitting Minority Languages
The Routledge Handbook of Language Revitalization, 2018
South East Asia Research, 2022
This paper looks at examples of language-related activities in the Channel Islands (between Brita... more This paper looks at examples of language-related activities in the Channel Islands (between Britain and France) and relates them to theoretical issues regarding language revitalization, in an attempt to address the fundamental questions of what is meant by ‘saving a language’, and what might constitute ‘success’ in language revitalization. With reference to the case studies I discuss common trends such as: - a focus on formal education, ‘technical fixes’ and language as ‘window-dressing’ - a general lack of ‘prior ideological clarification’ when planning revitalization activities - a tendency not to specify short- and long-term goals (except in very broad terms) - lack of evaluation of outcomes, especially in terms of symbolic value versus sustainable language use in the community, or what other value(s) might be invested in language revitalization (e.g. political capital or social revitalization) - the assumption that ‘the community’ is homogeneous - prioritising the maintenance of...
Attitudes to Endangered Languages
This dissertation explores themes of language death and revival, with a particular focus on Manx ... more This dissertation explores themes of language death and revival, with a particular focus on Manx Gaelic. The first chapter aims to define language death, discusses the scale of the phemenon, how and why it occurs, and why it is a matter of concern. It also compares a number of methods used to assess the vitality of languages. The second chapter looks at how languages such as Hebrew, Irish and Cornish have been revived or revitalised. It aims to discover common themes in language revivals and revitalisations, and discusses why some have been more successful than others. Chapter three provides a brief overview of the history of Manx and an account of its decline. Chapter four focuses on the revival of Manx and discusses such topics as Manx in education, families and literature, the official status of Manx and the organisations involved with Manx language and culture. Chapter five contains details of the methodology used to collect information for this dissertation, much of which, particularly details of the revival, current state and possible future of Manx, was collected during a visit to the Isle of Man in June 2009. Chapter six provides an assessment of the current state of Manx and examines use of the language in public, education, families and other domains. Chapter seven explores possible ways in which the Manx language may develop in the future. The final chapter summeries the topics discussed and compares the revival of Manx with other language revivals. This dissertation shows that the reasons for language decline and death are many and complex, and that it is possible to revitalise declining languages and to revive dead languages. It also shows that the decline of Manx has been reversed, and that Manx is now a living language with a small but ever-increasing number of speakers.
Multilingua, 2018
The Bailiwick of Guernsey is a small, semi-autonomous archipelago in the English Channel. Althoug... more The Bailiwick of Guernsey is a small, semi-autonomous archipelago in the English Channel. Although it is a British Crown dependency and part of the British Isles, it has its own parliament and does not belong to the United Kingdom or the European Union. This unusual geopolitical situation means that the nation-state has little relevance. It is only recently that the indigenous former vernacular has been accorded any worth, at either grass-roots or government level: as its vitality declines (increasingly rapidly), its perceived value for individual and collective identification has grown. Although public opinion overtly supports indigenous language maintenance, and increasing its vitality is a stated aim (e.g., a government Language Commission was announced in 2012), effective top-down measures to increase the number and fluency of speakers appear to be low on the agenda. This article explores the implications of this socio-political background for language policy. It discusses langu...
Current Issues in Language Planning, 2010
... This model is used in the teaching of Corsican. Research into the indigenous language variety... more ... This model is used in the teaching of Corsican. Research into the indigenous language variety of Guernsey reveals 'folk linguistic' acceptance of a regional variation as a source of richness, which suggests that a polynomic approach might be applicable. ...
New Speakers of Minority Languages, 2017
European Review, 2017
This paper is based on recent research into the small, highly endangered language Giernesiei1(Gue... more This paper is based on recent research into the small, highly endangered language Giernesiei1(Guernsey, Channel Islands).2Language documentation has found unexpectedly rich variation and change in Giernesiei usage, not all of which can be accounted for by regional and age-related factors. At the same time, our research into language ideologies and efforts to maintain and revitalise Giernesiei has revealed deep-seated purist or ‘traditionalist’ language attitudes that resist and deny language change. This nostalgic view of language and culture can hyper-valorise ‘authentic’ traditions (arguably reinvented3) and can lead to reluctance to share Giernesiei effectively with younger generations who might ‘change the language’, despite an overt desire to maintain it. This mismatch between ideologies and practices can be seen at language festivals, in lessons for children, and in the experiences of adult learners who were interviewed as part of a British Academy-funded project. I present a ...
This report stems from a brief visit to Rarotonga in April 2013 facilitated by Roderick Dixon, Di... more This report stems from a brief visit to Rarotonga in April 2013 facilitated by Roderick Dixon, Director of the University of the South Pacific in the Cook Islands. It addresses the following topics: 1. Language maintenance / shift 2. Languages and dialects 3. Expatriate / diaspora members of the speech community 4. Language policy and language in education 5. Dictionaries of Cook Islands Maori 6. Records of Cook Islands Maori: (a) oral, and (b) written 7. Proposals.
One of the main responses of academia to language endangerment has been the development of the su... more One of the main responses of academia to language endangerment has been the development of the sub-field of Language Documentation (LD, also called Documentary Linguistics). Himmelmann (1998: 161) presented its main goal as 'to provide a comprehensive record of the linguistic practices characteristic of a given speech community' Himmelmann (2006: v) restated this as a focus on 'the methods, tools, and theoretical underpinnings for compiling a representative and lasting multipurpose record of a natural language or one of its varieties'. This approach emphasizes transparency and multifunctionality, as well as ethical engagement with a wide range of stakeholders, including speech community members. As Himmelmann (1998: 161) also pointed out, LD 'differs fundamentally from... language description [which] aims at the record of a language... as a system of abstract elements, constructions, and rules.' The reawakened interest in language practices in context can be traced to the Ethnography of Communication pioneered by Hymes (1964), Ethnopoetics and the study of verbal art developed by Tedlock (1983) and Hymes (1981), and the discourse-based approach of Sherzer (1987), who argues for a change in focus to contextualized language in use rather than fixed objects with grammatical structure. Language Documentation is generally understood as the creation of a corpus of archivable audio, video and textual recordings, and translating and annotating them, paying attention to relevant contextual metadata (Austin 2013). The corpus and analysis should be available and accessible to a wide range of users. These goals have been facilitated by advances in information and communication technologies and digital media, and by large infusions of funding, e.g. from the Volkswagen-Stiftung, the Arcadia Fund and the Documenting Endangered Languages Programme. Both of these developments have influenced the methodologies and directions of research. 1.1 Recordings and Contextualization Documentary linguistics places a strong emphasis on the production of high-quality recordings. Techniques influenced by principles and practices in recording arts pay particular attention to such things as the choice and positioning of microphones, 1 reducing background noise, and lighting, framing and editing for video. Data collection methods have
Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 2013
It is widely agreed that at least half of the world’s 7000 languages are endangered and no longer... more It is widely agreed that at least half of the world’s 7000 languages are endangered and no longer being learnt as first languages by children, and that if nothing is done they will disappear within the coming century as the older generations who now speak them pass away (Krauss 1992; Grenoble 2011). The reasons for language endangerment are complex but typically involve a process of language shift as communities abandon their minority heritage languages in favour of larger more economically, politically and socially powerful tongues, most often those spoken by their neighbours and/or supported by local, regional or national governments and economic systems. In some cases, communities are actively engaged in language revitalisation in an attempt to stem or reverse the tide of language shift. Attitudes to language are of key importance in assessing the chances of endangered language survival, a factor recognised in Giles, Bourhis, and Taylor’s (1977) ethnolinguistic vitality framework, Bourhis, Giles, and Rosenthal’s (1981) and Bourhis and Sachdev’s (1984) subjective vitality questionnaire and UNESCO’s (2003) language vitality scales. Negative attitudes towards minority and endangered languages by both the speaker communities themselves and by speakers of the larger languages within which they are embedded are well documented and are both an outcome and a cause of shift to dominant languages. Such attitudes may reflect long histories of marginalisation, racism, stigmatisation and disadvantage. They can lead to ‘linguistic insecurity’, which is related to Gramsci’s (1971) notion of hegemony, whereby subordinate groups come to accept the inferiority of their own ways of speaking as ‘common sense’ and ‘natural’. Labov (1966, 489) claimed that in such cases ‘the term ‘‘linguistic self-hatred’’ may not be too extreme’. Fishman (1991, 340) asserts that ‘such self-views are reflections of the destruction of Xish self-esteem, due to decades of negative comparisons with Yish political power, economic advantage and modern sophistication’ (where Xish stands for the threatened language and Yish is the replacing language). Use of the minority language thus comes to be stigmatised, and members of minority groups may come to believe that if they acculturate to majority society by shifting language, their social and economic standing will improve. This can lead to a self-perpetuating spiral of declining use: ‘When the children object to speaking a language, gradually forget it or pretend to have forgotten it because they are ashamed of it, its future is much less assured’ (Calvet 1998, 75). Economic necessity or pragmatism are often cited as reasons for abandoning a minority language, since there may be little instrumental motivation for learning it. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 2013 Vol. 34, No. 4, 313 316, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2013.794806
Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 2013
It is widely agreed that at least half of the world’s 7000 languages are endangered and no longer... more It is widely agreed that at least half of the world’s 7000 languages are endangered and no longer being learnt as first languages by children, and that if nothing is done they will disappear within the coming century as the older generations who now speak them pass away (Krauss 1992; Grenoble 2011). The reasons for language endangerment are complex but typically involve a process of language shift as communities abandon their minority heritage languages in favour of larger more economically, politically and socially powerful tongues, most often those spoken by their neighbours and/or supported by local, regional or national governments and economic systems. In some cases, communities are actively engaged in language revitalisation in an attempt to stem or reverse the tide of language shift. Attitudes to language are of key importance in assessing the chances of endangered language survival, a factor recognised in Giles, Bourhis, and Taylor’s (1977) ethnolinguistic vitality framework, Bourhis, Giles, and Rosenthal’s (1981) and Bourhis and Sachdev’s (1984) subjective vitality questionnaire and UNESCO’s (2003) language vitality scales. Negative attitudes towards minority and endangered languages by both the speaker communities themselves and by speakers of the larger languages within which they are embedded are well documented and are both an outcome and a cause of shift to dominant languages. Such attitudes may reflect long histories of marginalisation, racism, stigmatisation and disadvantage. They can lead to ‘linguistic insecurity’, which is related to Gramsci’s (1971) notion of hegemony, whereby subordinate groups come to accept the inferiority of their own ways of speaking as ‘common sense’ and ‘natural’. Labov (1966, 489) claimed that in such cases ‘the term ‘‘linguistic self-hatred’’ may not be too extreme’. Fishman (1991, 340) asserts that ‘such self-views are reflections of the destruction of Xish self-esteem, due to decades of negative comparisons with Yish political power, economic advantage and modern sophistication’ (where Xish stands for the threatened language and Yish is the replacing language). Use of the minority language thus comes to be stigmatised, and members of minority groups may come to believe that if they acculturate to majority society by shifting language, their social and economic standing will improve. This can lead to a self-perpetuating spiral of declining use: ‘When the children object to speaking a language, gradually forget it or pretend to have forgotten it because they are ashamed of it, its future is much less assured’ (Calvet 1998, 75). Economic necessity or pragmatism are often cited as reasons for abandoning a minority language, since there may be little instrumental motivation for learning it. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 2013 Vol. 34, No. 4, 313 316, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2013.794806
Revitalizing Endangered Languages, 2021
Of the approximately 7,000 languages in the world, at least half may no longer be spoken by the e... more Of the approximately 7,000 languages in the world, at least half may no longer be spoken by the end of the twenty-first century. Languages are endangered by a number of factors, including globalization, education policies, and the political, economic and cultural marginalization of minority groups. This guidebook provides ideas and strategies, as well as some background, to help with the effective revitalization of endangered languages. It covers a broad scope of themes including effective planning, benefits, wellbeing, economic aspects, attitudes and ideologies. The chapter authors have hands-on experience of language revitalization in many countries around the world, and each chapter includes a wealth of examples, such as case studies from specific languages and language areas. Clearly and accessibly written, it is suitable for non-specialists as well as academic researchers and students interested in language revitalization. This book is also available as Open Access on Cambridge...
Creating Orthographies for Endangered Languages
Handbücher zur Sprach- und Kommunikationswissenschaft / Handbooks of Linguistics and Communication Science (HSK)
All African languages, from the largest to the smallest, exist with very minor or no institutiona... more All African languages, from the largest to the smallest, exist with very minor or no institutional support in self-sustained language ecologies. Only languages of colonial pedigree are recognized as official languages and used widely in formal domains. South Africa, which has recognized 11 languages as official languages and is investing in their use in formal education is the only exception to this observation. While the continent has its share of endangered and moribund languages (for a recent overview see Dimmendaal and Voeltz 2007; Sands 2009), many small African languages belong to the category of threatened languages. These languages are spoken by vital rural communities that are vulnerable to external threats resulting in their dissolution, such as (forced) migration to flee political unrest, escape the consequences of climate change or participate in the salaried labour market (Dimmendaal 2008; Mous 2003; Lüpke 2015a; Vigouroux and Mufwene 2008 inter alia). These movements weaken the rural communities that are the home bases for small languages and lead to the forging of new ethnolinguistic identities of their urban diaspora speakers.
Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development
Revitalizing Endangered Languages
Local languages have been falling into disuse and becoming forgotten in an increasingly accelerat... more Local languages have been falling into disuse and becoming forgotten in an increasingly accelerating pace over the last century or so: media and scientific reports keep reminding us, with quite alarming statistics. However, the last few decades have also witnessed another steadily growing trend: initiatives, both grassroots and top-down, to counteract the devastating loss of linguistic diversity and to promote multilingualism and the use of local languages. There have been programs and activities that can be considered real success stories or at least important steps toward them, even if revitalizing and supporting endangered languages is a never-ending task. But it is a task that can be planned, implemented, evaluated, and brought into a next stage thanks to this growing body of individual and collective experience and generated knowledge. This book is meant for anyone who feels concern or even pain because of the loss they and their communities might face; it is for people who experience joy when speaking their languages and want to have them heard, spoken, and strong. It is for people who learned their languages, or who wish to learn them, from their parents, grandparents, community members, or on their own. It is also for people who want to pass their ways of speaking to children and peers. As an Indigenous teacher in the Navajo reservations recently shared with one of us, the most committed parents wanting their children to learn the ancestral Diné language were those who grew up in borderland towns and lost it themselves. Loss can be an empowering stimulus to act. It can also lead to a profound joy of reclaiming a language, learning, speaking, and passing the language to other people, to experiencing the world through its unique perspective, to accessing the knowledge generated and transmitted by the ancestors. But language revitalization is not about going back to the past; it is about acting in the present and heading toward the future, recognizing that the past provides an important foundation and stimulus to achieve it. 1
Transmitting Minority Languages
The Routledge Handbook of Language Revitalization, 2018
South East Asia Research, 2022
This paper looks at examples of language-related activities in the Channel Islands (between Brita... more This paper looks at examples of language-related activities in the Channel Islands (between Britain and France) and relates them to theoretical issues regarding language revitalization, in an attempt to address the fundamental questions of what is meant by ‘saving a language’, and what might constitute ‘success’ in language revitalization. With reference to the case studies I discuss common trends such as: - a focus on formal education, ‘technical fixes’ and language as ‘window-dressing’ - a general lack of ‘prior ideological clarification’ when planning revitalization activities - a tendency not to specify short- and long-term goals (except in very broad terms) - lack of evaluation of outcomes, especially in terms of symbolic value versus sustainable language use in the community, or what other value(s) might be invested in language revitalization (e.g. political capital or social revitalization) - the assumption that ‘the community’ is homogeneous - prioritising the maintenance of...
Attitudes to Endangered Languages
This dissertation explores themes of language death and revival, with a particular focus on Manx ... more This dissertation explores themes of language death and revival, with a particular focus on Manx Gaelic. The first chapter aims to define language death, discusses the scale of the phemenon, how and why it occurs, and why it is a matter of concern. It also compares a number of methods used to assess the vitality of languages. The second chapter looks at how languages such as Hebrew, Irish and Cornish have been revived or revitalised. It aims to discover common themes in language revivals and revitalisations, and discusses why some have been more successful than others. Chapter three provides a brief overview of the history of Manx and an account of its decline. Chapter four focuses on the revival of Manx and discusses such topics as Manx in education, families and literature, the official status of Manx and the organisations involved with Manx language and culture. Chapter five contains details of the methodology used to collect information for this dissertation, much of which, particularly details of the revival, current state and possible future of Manx, was collected during a visit to the Isle of Man in June 2009. Chapter six provides an assessment of the current state of Manx and examines use of the language in public, education, families and other domains. Chapter seven explores possible ways in which the Manx language may develop in the future. The final chapter summeries the topics discussed and compares the revival of Manx with other language revivals. This dissertation shows that the reasons for language decline and death are many and complex, and that it is possible to revitalise declining languages and to revive dead languages. It also shows that the decline of Manx has been reversed, and that Manx is now a living language with a small but ever-increasing number of speakers.
Multilingua, 2018
The Bailiwick of Guernsey is a small, semi-autonomous archipelago in the English Channel. Althoug... more The Bailiwick of Guernsey is a small, semi-autonomous archipelago in the English Channel. Although it is a British Crown dependency and part of the British Isles, it has its own parliament and does not belong to the United Kingdom or the European Union. This unusual geopolitical situation means that the nation-state has little relevance. It is only recently that the indigenous former vernacular has been accorded any worth, at either grass-roots or government level: as its vitality declines (increasingly rapidly), its perceived value for individual and collective identification has grown. Although public opinion overtly supports indigenous language maintenance, and increasing its vitality is a stated aim (e.g., a government Language Commission was announced in 2012), effective top-down measures to increase the number and fluency of speakers appear to be low on the agenda. This article explores the implications of this socio-political background for language policy. It discusses langu...
Current Issues in Language Planning, 2010
... This model is used in the teaching of Corsican. Research into the indigenous language variety... more ... This model is used in the teaching of Corsican. Research into the indigenous language variety of Guernsey reveals 'folk linguistic' acceptance of a regional variation as a source of richness, which suggests that a polynomic approach might be applicable. ...
New Speakers of Minority Languages, 2017
European Review, 2017
This paper is based on recent research into the small, highly endangered language Giernesiei1(Gue... more This paper is based on recent research into the small, highly endangered language Giernesiei1(Guernsey, Channel Islands).2Language documentation has found unexpectedly rich variation and change in Giernesiei usage, not all of which can be accounted for by regional and age-related factors. At the same time, our research into language ideologies and efforts to maintain and revitalise Giernesiei has revealed deep-seated purist or ‘traditionalist’ language attitudes that resist and deny language change. This nostalgic view of language and culture can hyper-valorise ‘authentic’ traditions (arguably reinvented3) and can lead to reluctance to share Giernesiei effectively with younger generations who might ‘change the language’, despite an overt desire to maintain it. This mismatch between ideologies and practices can be seen at language festivals, in lessons for children, and in the experiences of adult learners who were interviewed as part of a British Academy-funded project. I present a ...
This report stems from a brief visit to Rarotonga in April 2013 facilitated by Roderick Dixon, Di... more This report stems from a brief visit to Rarotonga in April 2013 facilitated by Roderick Dixon, Director of the University of the South Pacific in the Cook Islands. It addresses the following topics: 1. Language maintenance / shift 2. Languages and dialects 3. Expatriate / diaspora members of the speech community 4. Language policy and language in education 5. Dictionaries of Cook Islands Maori 6. Records of Cook Islands Maori: (a) oral, and (b) written 7. Proposals.
One of the main responses of academia to language endangerment has been the development of the su... more One of the main responses of academia to language endangerment has been the development of the sub-field of Language Documentation (LD, also called Documentary Linguistics). Himmelmann (1998: 161) presented its main goal as 'to provide a comprehensive record of the linguistic practices characteristic of a given speech community' Himmelmann (2006: v) restated this as a focus on 'the methods, tools, and theoretical underpinnings for compiling a representative and lasting multipurpose record of a natural language or one of its varieties'. This approach emphasizes transparency and multifunctionality, as well as ethical engagement with a wide range of stakeholders, including speech community members. As Himmelmann (1998: 161) also pointed out, LD 'differs fundamentally from... language description [which] aims at the record of a language... as a system of abstract elements, constructions, and rules.' The reawakened interest in language practices in context can be traced to the Ethnography of Communication pioneered by Hymes (1964), Ethnopoetics and the study of verbal art developed by Tedlock (1983) and Hymes (1981), and the discourse-based approach of Sherzer (1987), who argues for a change in focus to contextualized language in use rather than fixed objects with grammatical structure. Language Documentation is generally understood as the creation of a corpus of archivable audio, video and textual recordings, and translating and annotating them, paying attention to relevant contextual metadata (Austin 2013). The corpus and analysis should be available and accessible to a wide range of users. These goals have been facilitated by advances in information and communication technologies and digital media, and by large infusions of funding, e.g. from the Volkswagen-Stiftung, the Arcadia Fund and the Documenting Endangered Languages Programme. Both of these developments have influenced the methodologies and directions of research. 1.1 Recordings and Contextualization Documentary linguistics places a strong emphasis on the production of high-quality recordings. Techniques influenced by principles and practices in recording arts pay particular attention to such things as the choice and positioning of microphones, 1 reducing background noise, and lighting, framing and editing for video. Data collection methods have
Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 2013
It is widely agreed that at least half of the world’s 7000 languages are endangered and no longer... more It is widely agreed that at least half of the world’s 7000 languages are endangered and no longer being learnt as first languages by children, and that if nothing is done they will disappear within the coming century as the older generations who now speak them pass away (Krauss 1992; Grenoble 2011). The reasons for language endangerment are complex but typically involve a process of language shift as communities abandon their minority heritage languages in favour of larger more economically, politically and socially powerful tongues, most often those spoken by their neighbours and/or supported by local, regional or national governments and economic systems. In some cases, communities are actively engaged in language revitalisation in an attempt to stem or reverse the tide of language shift. Attitudes to language are of key importance in assessing the chances of endangered language survival, a factor recognised in Giles, Bourhis, and Taylor’s (1977) ethnolinguistic vitality framework, Bourhis, Giles, and Rosenthal’s (1981) and Bourhis and Sachdev’s (1984) subjective vitality questionnaire and UNESCO’s (2003) language vitality scales. Negative attitudes towards minority and endangered languages by both the speaker communities themselves and by speakers of the larger languages within which they are embedded are well documented and are both an outcome and a cause of shift to dominant languages. Such attitudes may reflect long histories of marginalisation, racism, stigmatisation and disadvantage. They can lead to ‘linguistic insecurity’, which is related to Gramsci’s (1971) notion of hegemony, whereby subordinate groups come to accept the inferiority of their own ways of speaking as ‘common sense’ and ‘natural’. Labov (1966, 489) claimed that in such cases ‘the term ‘‘linguistic self-hatred’’ may not be too extreme’. Fishman (1991, 340) asserts that ‘such self-views are reflections of the destruction of Xish self-esteem, due to decades of negative comparisons with Yish political power, economic advantage and modern sophistication’ (where Xish stands for the threatened language and Yish is the replacing language). Use of the minority language thus comes to be stigmatised, and members of minority groups may come to believe that if they acculturate to majority society by shifting language, their social and economic standing will improve. This can lead to a self-perpetuating spiral of declining use: ‘When the children object to speaking a language, gradually forget it or pretend to have forgotten it because they are ashamed of it, its future is much less assured’ (Calvet 1998, 75). Economic necessity or pragmatism are often cited as reasons for abandoning a minority language, since there may be little instrumental motivation for learning it. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 2013 Vol. 34, No. 4, 313 316, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2013.794806
Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 2013
It is widely agreed that at least half of the world’s 7000 languages are endangered and no longer... more It is widely agreed that at least half of the world’s 7000 languages are endangered and no longer being learnt as first languages by children, and that if nothing is done they will disappear within the coming century as the older generations who now speak them pass away (Krauss 1992; Grenoble 2011). The reasons for language endangerment are complex but typically involve a process of language shift as communities abandon their minority heritage languages in favour of larger more economically, politically and socially powerful tongues, most often those spoken by their neighbours and/or supported by local, regional or national governments and economic systems. In some cases, communities are actively engaged in language revitalisation in an attempt to stem or reverse the tide of language shift. Attitudes to language are of key importance in assessing the chances of endangered language survival, a factor recognised in Giles, Bourhis, and Taylor’s (1977) ethnolinguistic vitality framework, Bourhis, Giles, and Rosenthal’s (1981) and Bourhis and Sachdev’s (1984) subjective vitality questionnaire and UNESCO’s (2003) language vitality scales. Negative attitudes towards minority and endangered languages by both the speaker communities themselves and by speakers of the larger languages within which they are embedded are well documented and are both an outcome and a cause of shift to dominant languages. Such attitudes may reflect long histories of marginalisation, racism, stigmatisation and disadvantage. They can lead to ‘linguistic insecurity’, which is related to Gramsci’s (1971) notion of hegemony, whereby subordinate groups come to accept the inferiority of their own ways of speaking as ‘common sense’ and ‘natural’. Labov (1966, 489) claimed that in such cases ‘the term ‘‘linguistic self-hatred’’ may not be too extreme’. Fishman (1991, 340) asserts that ‘such self-views are reflections of the destruction of Xish self-esteem, due to decades of negative comparisons with Yish political power, economic advantage and modern sophistication’ (where Xish stands for the threatened language and Yish is the replacing language). Use of the minority language thus comes to be stigmatised, and members of minority groups may come to believe that if they acculturate to majority society by shifting language, their social and economic standing will improve. This can lead to a self-perpetuating spiral of declining use: ‘When the children object to speaking a language, gradually forget it or pretend to have forgotten it because they are ashamed of it, its future is much less assured’ (Calvet 1998, 75). Economic necessity or pragmatism are often cited as reasons for abandoning a minority language, since there may be little instrumental motivation for learning it. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 2013 Vol. 34, No. 4, 313 316, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2013.794806
Revitalizing Endangered Languages, 2021
Of the approximately 7,000 languages in the world, at least half may no longer be spoken by the e... more Of the approximately 7,000 languages in the world, at least half may no longer be spoken by the end of the twenty-first century. Languages are endangered by a number of factors, including globalization, education policies, and the political, economic and cultural marginalization of minority groups. This guidebook provides ideas and strategies, as well as some background, to help with the effective revitalization of endangered languages. It covers a broad scope of themes including effective planning, benefits, wellbeing, economic aspects, attitudes and ideologies. The chapter authors have hands-on experience of language revitalization in many countries around the world, and each chapter includes a wealth of examples, such as case studies from specific languages and language areas. Clearly and accessibly written, it is suitable for non-specialists as well as academic researchers and students interested in language revitalization. This book is also available as Open Access on Cambridge...
Creating Orthographies for Endangered Languages
Handbücher zur Sprach- und Kommunikationswissenschaft / Handbooks of Linguistics and Communication Science (HSK)
Revitalizing Endangered Languages: A Practical Guide, 2021
This guidebook provides ideas and strategies, as well as some background, to help with the effect... more This guidebook provides ideas and strategies, as well as some background, to help with the effective revitalization of endangered languages. It covers a broad scope of themes including effective planning, benefits, wellbeing, economic aspects, attitudes and ideologies. The chapter authors have hands-on experience of language revitalization in many countries around the world, and each chapter includes a wealth of examples, such as case studies from specific languages and language areas. Clearly and accessibly written, it is suitable for non-specialists as well as academic researchers and students interested in language revitalization.
Revitalizing Endangered Languages: A Practical Guide is available free online as Gold Open Access: https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/revitalizing-endangered-languages/ADCBBA31190F259BA13525C769E92A9A
Full Open Access was paid for by EU Horizon 2020 project Engaged Humanities.
For copyright reasons I can't distribute it myself - please go to the publisher's website https://www.cambridge.org/gb/academic/subjects/languages-linguistics/research-methods-linguistics/revitalizing-endangered-languages-practical-guide?format=HB