Gareth RT White | University of South Wales (original) (raw)

Papers by Gareth RT White

Research paper thumbnail of Sustainable Packaging

International Journal of Social Ecology and Sustainable Development, 2015

The issue of sustainability has attracted considerable attention over the last decade and has bee... more The issue of sustainability has attracted considerable attention over the last decade and has been accompanied by the development of stringent packaging material legislation for firms. Drawing on a single case approach, this paper examines the operational challenges faced by manufacturing SMEs as they strive to meet the expectations and requirements of increasingly demanding sustainable packaging regulations.

Research paper thumbnail of Green Supply Chain Management in Chinese Electronic Manufacturing Organisations

International Journal of Social Ecology and Sustainable Development, 2015

Research paper thumbnail of The Triple Helix model for innovation: a holistic exploration of barriers and enablers

International Journal of Business Performance and Supply Chain Modelling, 2015

The Triple Helix model of innovation has attracted considerable attention in both developed and d... more The Triple Helix model of innovation has attracted considerable attention in both developed and developing economies as an integral policy making tool to enhance innovation and promote economic development (Etzkowitz and Leydesdorff, 1997). Specifically it advocates the strengthening of the collaborative relationships between academia, industry and government to improve innovation. However, no studies have holistically examined the overall barriers and enablers in implementing, and attempting to operationalise, the Triple Helix model. This paper aims to contribute to the study of the Triple Helix model by investigating the main factors that influence the implementation and operationalisation of this model. The discussion begins with a description of the model, highlighting its emphasis on an evolutionary process towards developing the type of interactive collaboration that leads to all three actors achieving long term strategic goals. Following this a discussion of the enablers and barriers in implementing the model is presented.

Research paper thumbnail of Harnessing the Technology Wave for Tourism: drawing on the community of practice of Human Search Engines

There is already a technology wave coursing through location based leisure sport, that of geocach... more There is already a technology wave coursing through location based leisure sport, that of geocaching, where participants create a cache (or hidden ‘treasure’), hide it at an interesting place so others may employ Global Positioning System (GPS) technology to locate it. That people involved in geocaching are constantly searching for these hidden treasures has resulted in geocaching being frequently described as a hi-tech version of treasure hunting and its participants as ‘Human search engines’. In this recreational sport a box containing small gifts, toys, key rings or coins is hidden at a public location that might be of interest to other people e.g. as a result of its history, beauty or landscape. The box will also often contain a small log book in which finders of the cache will log their visits along with a short message. The cache hider then publishes the co-ordinates of the location (the ‘waypoint’) on the community’s web page, sometimes with clues and other relevant geographi...

Research paper thumbnail of A comparison of barcoding and RFID technologies in practice

This research paper highlights inconsistencies in the way Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) i... more This research paper highlights inconsistencies in the way Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is compared to existing barcoding technology and the lack of empirical evidence to support one's superiority over the other. Reference is drawn to the way in which RFID and barcoding technologies are represented in the literature. Time and motion studies were conducted in a distribution company's chilled warehouse where RFID technology had already been trialled and implemented on recyclable refrigerated food trays and in operation alongside barcoding systems. Attention was given to recording the number and nature of errors that each technology exhibited. This paper concludes that while RFID can deliver improved operational performance over traditional barcode systems, it is found to be less reliable in implementation. Hybrid systems may offer operational benefits over single-technology systems, but the cost of their complexity still needs to be examined.

Research paper thumbnail of Adoption and use of E-commerce by small businesses in the UK tourism industry

This paper presents a quantitative study of 90 small tourism businesses in the South West of the ... more This paper presents a quantitative study of 90 small tourism businesses in the South West of the United Kingdom. It examines the factors that influence the adoption and use of e-commerce and the types of e-business that these organisations undertake. It confirms the influencing factors that have been identified in previous research in similar small to medium sized enterprises that determine business decisions to adopt and use e-commerce. It also finds that there was virtually no strategic use of e-commerce but that all organisations that were studied relied upon web-based activities in one form or another. Finally we present a five point list of recommendations targeted at owner-managers of small tourism businesses to direct their future e-commerce strategies.

Research paper thumbnail of Measuring Outsourcing Efficacy: An Examination of Performance in the Aerospace Sector

Strategic Change, 2015

O n-site outsourcing can be an effective strategy for organizations but operational performance m... more O n-site outsourcing can be an effective strategy for organizations but operational performance may be temporarily hindered and recovery from this can take many months.

Research paper thumbnail of Challenges and practices in Halal meat preparation: a case study investigation of a UK slaughterhouse

Total Quality Management & Business Excellence, 2015

Consumer concerns over the provenance of food that has been prepared in accordance with religious... more Consumer concerns over the provenance of food that has been prepared in accordance with religious requirements has risen in importance. Instances of improper identification and sale of Halal meat-based products in particular have given rise to questions over the authenticity of such foods. Despite this and the rising demand for Halal foods across the globe, little research has been conducted around the specific issues that arise during their production. This paper presents a case study investigation of a slaughterhouse in the UK that prepares both Halal and non-Halal meat products. It aims to improve our understanding of the challenges that Halal food production presents. The extra requirements of Halal food preparation place additional burdens especially upon smaller processors. Future development of quality standards should take account of the abilities of smaller organisations and the constraints under which they operate. Additionally, food quality assurance standards and systems should highlight the specific requirements of food that has been prepared in accordance with religious requirements. While this study has highlighted the complexities of Halal food production, similar issues are likely to be present in the production of Kosher food, and such compliances may also be required of foods consumed by people of other faiths.

Research paper thumbnail of Knowledge Transfer Partnerships at the University of the West of England

Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies, 2010

Research paper thumbnail of Inter-organisational green packaging design: a case study of influencing factors and constraints in the automotive supply chain

International Journal of Production Research, 2014

Green packaging is playing an increasingly important role in greening the supply chain. However, ... more Green packaging is playing an increasingly important role in greening the supply chain. However, the issues that companies face when developing green packaging solutions for the transportation of products within supply chains are poorly understood. A case study of an automotive component manufacturer is presented that explores the complexity of the decisions that surround the decision of inter-organisational packaging design. Drawing upon the literature, legislation and the expert evaluation provided by the case organisation, it identifies the important criteria that influence packaging design and comprise customer requirements, legislation, operational and environmental concerns. This research finds that even though the company makes significant efforts to improve its environmental performance, operational concerns are most influential factors in the design of packaging. Initiatives that aim to improve the environmental performance of packaging are also constrained by external influences in the supply chain, such as customer pressure to adopt branded packaging systems and the inability to influence the design of incoming goods and material packaging.

Research paper thumbnail of Extension of process mapping to identify “green waste”

Benchmarking: An International Journal, 2014

Purpose -This paper aims to examine the implementation of the Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EM... more Purpose -This paper aims to examine the implementation of the Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS) in a non-profit, small-to-medium sized-enterprise (SME) in the UK. Design/methodology/approach -A four-year participatory action research study is made upon knowledge transfer partnerships between the University of the West of England and the Royal Bath and West Society. Findings -Through the adoption of EMAS, the organisation was able to identify operational improvements as well as make significant efforts to improve its environmental performance, reducing its carbon footprint by 30 tCO 2 e per annum and gaining new business.

Research paper thumbnail of A Knowledge Review: Implications For Future Research and Practical Application

International Journal of Business and Management, 2009

Research paper thumbnail of Culture and Conflict Management Style of International Project Managers

International Journal of Business and Management, 2009

The management of culture has become increasingly important to many organisations and business di... more The management of culture has become increasingly important to many organisations and business disciplines, particularly multicultural and international project management. Cultural differences often result in varying degrees of conflict and require careful consideration. This study surveys 116 Project Managers using the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument to determine their approach toward managing conflict. Indian, French and UK Project Managers' conflict management style are correlated with Hofstede's description of their cultural characteristics. We find that significant links between the cultural dimensions of Individualism and Masculinity with the propensity for Project Managers to adopt a Competitive style of conflict management. We also find Uncertainty Avoidance correlates with a tendency for Project Managers to adopt an Avoiding approach to conflict management. Other relationships are found between Hofstede's cultural dimensions and conflict management styles in Project Managers but their meaning requires further study.

Research paper thumbnail of The implementation of a quality management system in the not-for-profit sector

The TQM Journal, 2009

... organisations or industry sectors are now beginning to ask “what next?” and are considering o... more ... organisations or industry sectors are now beginning to ask “what next?” and are considering options such as TQM, business process re-engineering, Six Sigma, balanced scorecard or combinations of these methods as options for driving their quality systems forward (Yang et al ...

Research paper thumbnail of E-commerce trading activity and the SME sector: an FSB perspective

Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 2013

Purpose -This study aims to examine e-commerce within UK small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs... more Purpose -This study aims to examine e-commerce within UK small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs). More specifically, it seeks to explore associations between e-commerce and internal and external antecedents including trading behaviour, owner/manager characteristics, innovation, public sector involvement, business advice and finance sources. Design/methodology/approach -An 8,500 þ sample derived from the 2008 UK Federation of Small Businesses survey was utilised. An OLS regression equation was generated where the percentage of sales made using e-commerce constituted the dependent variable. Independent variables were constructed for several sets of factors including innovation, business advice and sources of finance, as well as a range of owner and SME typology variables. Findings -The results suggest that e-commerce is more strongly apparent in SMEs started from scratch and where they were involved in basic or high knowledge services or the tourist trade. SMEs undertaking e-commerce were also associated with innovation in the form of copyright, as well as public procurement with local authorities and the university sector. Specific business advice in the form of capacity, family and suppliers was also associated with e-commerce trading. Research limitations/implications -These results have implications for SMEs and public sector stakeholders. SMEs must recognise the importance of several potential antecedents such as intellectual property rights, specific business advice and finance to encourage e-commerce. Moreover, it was apparent that certain SME characteristics, namely locality and trading behaviour, were associated with effective e-commerce. Originality/value -This study will be of value to academia, SMEs and key public sector stakeholders in the formulation of policy for ICT development.

Research paper thumbnail of Asymmetric Procurement in the Public Sector

Research paper thumbnail of Profiling an entrepreneurial family in the UK

Management & …, 2010

Management & Organization is a non-profit journal of the University of Ghana Business School. The... more Management & Organization is a non-profit journal of the University of Ghana Business School. The Journal retains full copyright ownership of this article. Any downloads/printing beyond simple use for academic purposes requires writ-ten consent from the editor who can be ...

Research paper thumbnail of Turing test for organizational intelligence

IB Scientific Magazine, 2008

White, Gareth and Djebarni, R (2008) Turing test for organizational intelligence. IB Scientific M... more White, Gareth and Djebarni, R (2008) Turing test for organizational intelligence. IB Scientific Magazine, 3 (1). pp. 7-9. ... We recommend you cite the published version. The publisher's URL is http://publications.ibscientific.net/JournalOfScience/article/viewArticle/142

Research paper thumbnail of Business Information Management: Improving Performance Using Information Systems

ABSTRACT Information. Technology. Both resources are increasingly important as organisations seek... more ABSTRACT Information. Technology. Both resources are increasingly important as organisations seek to improve their performance. Applying information and technology can offer new ways to do business, increase the efficiency of business processes, reduce costs, and provide the performance measures used to control improvement. Can business information management improve organisational performance? What are the key issues faced by managers today in terms of managing business information? How can 'big picture' strategy be developed, implemented and managed? This textbook takes a problem-solving approach, highlighting the issues faced by managers in identifying, capturing and systematising information in order to improve organisational performance. Now in its second edition, Business Information Management helps students to understand how to improve organisational performance by exploring these issues, and examines solutions to reduce problems. Unique in its multi-stakeholder perspective, this book addresses challenges faced by not only the end-user but also the general manager, IT manager and company director. - See more at: http://catalogue.pearsoned.co.uk/educator/product/Business-Information-Management-Improving-Performance-Using-Information-Systems/9780273711797.page#sthash.VMhxU5a9.dpuf

Research paper thumbnail of Information Technology Usage in SMEs in a Developing Economy

SMEs are known to be the backbone of the economy in developed and developing countries, and Niger... more SMEs are known to be the backbone of the economy in
developed and developing countries, and Nigeria has
advanced immensely through the numerous benefits that
ICT provides. There is a need for both managers and employees to undergo continual training in order to be aware of the changing nature of ICTs and to find the most suitable solution for their organizations. ICT adoption in developing economies appears to present additional challenges to those that are experienced in the majority of system implementations and developments.

Research paper thumbnail of Sustainable Packaging

International Journal of Social Ecology and Sustainable Development, 2015

The issue of sustainability has attracted considerable attention over the last decade and has bee... more The issue of sustainability has attracted considerable attention over the last decade and has been accompanied by the development of stringent packaging material legislation for firms. Drawing on a single case approach, this paper examines the operational challenges faced by manufacturing SMEs as they strive to meet the expectations and requirements of increasingly demanding sustainable packaging regulations.

Research paper thumbnail of Green Supply Chain Management in Chinese Electronic Manufacturing Organisations

International Journal of Social Ecology and Sustainable Development, 2015

Research paper thumbnail of The Triple Helix model for innovation: a holistic exploration of barriers and enablers

International Journal of Business Performance and Supply Chain Modelling, 2015

The Triple Helix model of innovation has attracted considerable attention in both developed and d... more The Triple Helix model of innovation has attracted considerable attention in both developed and developing economies as an integral policy making tool to enhance innovation and promote economic development (Etzkowitz and Leydesdorff, 1997). Specifically it advocates the strengthening of the collaborative relationships between academia, industry and government to improve innovation. However, no studies have holistically examined the overall barriers and enablers in implementing, and attempting to operationalise, the Triple Helix model. This paper aims to contribute to the study of the Triple Helix model by investigating the main factors that influence the implementation and operationalisation of this model. The discussion begins with a description of the model, highlighting its emphasis on an evolutionary process towards developing the type of interactive collaboration that leads to all three actors achieving long term strategic goals. Following this a discussion of the enablers and barriers in implementing the model is presented.

Research paper thumbnail of Harnessing the Technology Wave for Tourism: drawing on the community of practice of Human Search Engines

There is already a technology wave coursing through location based leisure sport, that of geocach... more There is already a technology wave coursing through location based leisure sport, that of geocaching, where participants create a cache (or hidden ‘treasure’), hide it at an interesting place so others may employ Global Positioning System (GPS) technology to locate it. That people involved in geocaching are constantly searching for these hidden treasures has resulted in geocaching being frequently described as a hi-tech version of treasure hunting and its participants as ‘Human search engines’. In this recreational sport a box containing small gifts, toys, key rings or coins is hidden at a public location that might be of interest to other people e.g. as a result of its history, beauty or landscape. The box will also often contain a small log book in which finders of the cache will log their visits along with a short message. The cache hider then publishes the co-ordinates of the location (the ‘waypoint’) on the community’s web page, sometimes with clues and other relevant geographi...

Research paper thumbnail of A comparison of barcoding and RFID technologies in practice

This research paper highlights inconsistencies in the way Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) i... more This research paper highlights inconsistencies in the way Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is compared to existing barcoding technology and the lack of empirical evidence to support one's superiority over the other. Reference is drawn to the way in which RFID and barcoding technologies are represented in the literature. Time and motion studies were conducted in a distribution company's chilled warehouse where RFID technology had already been trialled and implemented on recyclable refrigerated food trays and in operation alongside barcoding systems. Attention was given to recording the number and nature of errors that each technology exhibited. This paper concludes that while RFID can deliver improved operational performance over traditional barcode systems, it is found to be less reliable in implementation. Hybrid systems may offer operational benefits over single-technology systems, but the cost of their complexity still needs to be examined.

Research paper thumbnail of Adoption and use of E-commerce by small businesses in the UK tourism industry

This paper presents a quantitative study of 90 small tourism businesses in the South West of the ... more This paper presents a quantitative study of 90 small tourism businesses in the South West of the United Kingdom. It examines the factors that influence the adoption and use of e-commerce and the types of e-business that these organisations undertake. It confirms the influencing factors that have been identified in previous research in similar small to medium sized enterprises that determine business decisions to adopt and use e-commerce. It also finds that there was virtually no strategic use of e-commerce but that all organisations that were studied relied upon web-based activities in one form or another. Finally we present a five point list of recommendations targeted at owner-managers of small tourism businesses to direct their future e-commerce strategies.

Research paper thumbnail of Measuring Outsourcing Efficacy: An Examination of Performance in the Aerospace Sector

Strategic Change, 2015

O n-site outsourcing can be an effective strategy for organizations but operational performance m... more O n-site outsourcing can be an effective strategy for organizations but operational performance may be temporarily hindered and recovery from this can take many months.

Research paper thumbnail of Challenges and practices in Halal meat preparation: a case study investigation of a UK slaughterhouse

Total Quality Management & Business Excellence, 2015

Consumer concerns over the provenance of food that has been prepared in accordance with religious... more Consumer concerns over the provenance of food that has been prepared in accordance with religious requirements has risen in importance. Instances of improper identification and sale of Halal meat-based products in particular have given rise to questions over the authenticity of such foods. Despite this and the rising demand for Halal foods across the globe, little research has been conducted around the specific issues that arise during their production. This paper presents a case study investigation of a slaughterhouse in the UK that prepares both Halal and non-Halal meat products. It aims to improve our understanding of the challenges that Halal food production presents. The extra requirements of Halal food preparation place additional burdens especially upon smaller processors. Future development of quality standards should take account of the abilities of smaller organisations and the constraints under which they operate. Additionally, food quality assurance standards and systems should highlight the specific requirements of food that has been prepared in accordance with religious requirements. While this study has highlighted the complexities of Halal food production, similar issues are likely to be present in the production of Kosher food, and such compliances may also be required of foods consumed by people of other faiths.

Research paper thumbnail of Knowledge Transfer Partnerships at the University of the West of England

Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies, 2010

Research paper thumbnail of Inter-organisational green packaging design: a case study of influencing factors and constraints in the automotive supply chain

International Journal of Production Research, 2014

Green packaging is playing an increasingly important role in greening the supply chain. However, ... more Green packaging is playing an increasingly important role in greening the supply chain. However, the issues that companies face when developing green packaging solutions for the transportation of products within supply chains are poorly understood. A case study of an automotive component manufacturer is presented that explores the complexity of the decisions that surround the decision of inter-organisational packaging design. Drawing upon the literature, legislation and the expert evaluation provided by the case organisation, it identifies the important criteria that influence packaging design and comprise customer requirements, legislation, operational and environmental concerns. This research finds that even though the company makes significant efforts to improve its environmental performance, operational concerns are most influential factors in the design of packaging. Initiatives that aim to improve the environmental performance of packaging are also constrained by external influences in the supply chain, such as customer pressure to adopt branded packaging systems and the inability to influence the design of incoming goods and material packaging.

Research paper thumbnail of Extension of process mapping to identify “green waste”

Benchmarking: An International Journal, 2014

Purpose -This paper aims to examine the implementation of the Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EM... more Purpose -This paper aims to examine the implementation of the Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS) in a non-profit, small-to-medium sized-enterprise (SME) in the UK. Design/methodology/approach -A four-year participatory action research study is made upon knowledge transfer partnerships between the University of the West of England and the Royal Bath and West Society. Findings -Through the adoption of EMAS, the organisation was able to identify operational improvements as well as make significant efforts to improve its environmental performance, reducing its carbon footprint by 30 tCO 2 e per annum and gaining new business.

Research paper thumbnail of A Knowledge Review: Implications For Future Research and Practical Application

International Journal of Business and Management, 2009

Research paper thumbnail of Culture and Conflict Management Style of International Project Managers

International Journal of Business and Management, 2009

The management of culture has become increasingly important to many organisations and business di... more The management of culture has become increasingly important to many organisations and business disciplines, particularly multicultural and international project management. Cultural differences often result in varying degrees of conflict and require careful consideration. This study surveys 116 Project Managers using the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument to determine their approach toward managing conflict. Indian, French and UK Project Managers' conflict management style are correlated with Hofstede's description of their cultural characteristics. We find that significant links between the cultural dimensions of Individualism and Masculinity with the propensity for Project Managers to adopt a Competitive style of conflict management. We also find Uncertainty Avoidance correlates with a tendency for Project Managers to adopt an Avoiding approach to conflict management. Other relationships are found between Hofstede's cultural dimensions and conflict management styles in Project Managers but their meaning requires further study.

Research paper thumbnail of The implementation of a quality management system in the not-for-profit sector

The TQM Journal, 2009

... organisations or industry sectors are now beginning to ask “what next?” and are considering o... more ... organisations or industry sectors are now beginning to ask “what next?” and are considering options such as TQM, business process re-engineering, Six Sigma, balanced scorecard or combinations of these methods as options for driving their quality systems forward (Yang et al ...

Research paper thumbnail of E-commerce trading activity and the SME sector: an FSB perspective

Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 2013

Purpose -This study aims to examine e-commerce within UK small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs... more Purpose -This study aims to examine e-commerce within UK small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs). More specifically, it seeks to explore associations between e-commerce and internal and external antecedents including trading behaviour, owner/manager characteristics, innovation, public sector involvement, business advice and finance sources. Design/methodology/approach -An 8,500 þ sample derived from the 2008 UK Federation of Small Businesses survey was utilised. An OLS regression equation was generated where the percentage of sales made using e-commerce constituted the dependent variable. Independent variables were constructed for several sets of factors including innovation, business advice and sources of finance, as well as a range of owner and SME typology variables. Findings -The results suggest that e-commerce is more strongly apparent in SMEs started from scratch and where they were involved in basic or high knowledge services or the tourist trade. SMEs undertaking e-commerce were also associated with innovation in the form of copyright, as well as public procurement with local authorities and the university sector. Specific business advice in the form of capacity, family and suppliers was also associated with e-commerce trading. Research limitations/implications -These results have implications for SMEs and public sector stakeholders. SMEs must recognise the importance of several potential antecedents such as intellectual property rights, specific business advice and finance to encourage e-commerce. Moreover, it was apparent that certain SME characteristics, namely locality and trading behaviour, were associated with effective e-commerce. Originality/value -This study will be of value to academia, SMEs and key public sector stakeholders in the formulation of policy for ICT development.

Research paper thumbnail of Asymmetric Procurement in the Public Sector

Research paper thumbnail of Profiling an entrepreneurial family in the UK

Management & …, 2010

Management & Organization is a non-profit journal of the University of Ghana Business School. The... more Management & Organization is a non-profit journal of the University of Ghana Business School. The Journal retains full copyright ownership of this article. Any downloads/printing beyond simple use for academic purposes requires writ-ten consent from the editor who can be ...

Research paper thumbnail of Turing test for organizational intelligence

IB Scientific Magazine, 2008

White, Gareth and Djebarni, R (2008) Turing test for organizational intelligence. IB Scientific M... more White, Gareth and Djebarni, R (2008) Turing test for organizational intelligence. IB Scientific Magazine, 3 (1). pp. 7-9. ... We recommend you cite the published version. The publisher's URL is http://publications.ibscientific.net/JournalOfScience/article/viewArticle/142

Research paper thumbnail of Business Information Management: Improving Performance Using Information Systems

ABSTRACT Information. Technology. Both resources are increasingly important as organisations seek... more ABSTRACT Information. Technology. Both resources are increasingly important as organisations seek to improve their performance. Applying information and technology can offer new ways to do business, increase the efficiency of business processes, reduce costs, and provide the performance measures used to control improvement. Can business information management improve organisational performance? What are the key issues faced by managers today in terms of managing business information? How can 'big picture' strategy be developed, implemented and managed? This textbook takes a problem-solving approach, highlighting the issues faced by managers in identifying, capturing and systematising information in order to improve organisational performance. Now in its second edition, Business Information Management helps students to understand how to improve organisational performance by exploring these issues, and examines solutions to reduce problems. Unique in its multi-stakeholder perspective, this book addresses challenges faced by not only the end-user but also the general manager, IT manager and company director. - See more at: http://catalogue.pearsoned.co.uk/educator/product/Business-Information-Management-Improving-Performance-Using-Information-Systems/9780273711797.page#sthash.VMhxU5a9.dpuf

Research paper thumbnail of Information Technology Usage in SMEs in a Developing Economy

SMEs are known to be the backbone of the economy in developed and developing countries, and Niger... more SMEs are known to be the backbone of the economy in
developed and developing countries, and Nigeria has
advanced immensely through the numerous benefits that
ICT provides. There is a need for both managers and employees to undergo continual training in order to be aware of the changing nature of ICTs and to find the most suitable solution for their organizations. ICT adoption in developing economies appears to present additional challenges to those that are experienced in the majority of system implementations and developments.