Kim E Drake | Swansea University (original) (raw)

Books by Kim E Drake

Police induced false confessions can sometimes occur as a result of vulnerable suspects being les... more Police induced false confessions can sometimes occur as a result of vulnerable suspects being less able to cope with the pressure of questioning. The research discussed explores why this might be the case; why vulnerable suspects may be less resilient to external pressure, and therefore more inclined towards false confessions. It considers the relationship between trait personality variables, insecure attachment tendencies, and the experience of intense life adversity. It examines how those factors are related and may increase the likelihood of police-induced false confessions and statements during interview. Findings provide an insight into one of the major reasons why innocents may sometimes give false confessions and statements during investigative interview. This work therefore extends theory and offers practical insights for the interviewing of vulnerable suspects of relevance to students, researchers, and practitioners within forensic psychology and applied forensic setting.

Papers by Kim E Drake

Personality and Individual Differences, 2016

The principal aim of this study is to investigate the interplay between the reported experience o... more The principal aim of this study is to investigate the interplay between the reported experience of physical/
psychological trauma and disturbances involving parentswithin the home, latent stress-sensitivity, and the likelihood
of reporting false confessions in females. This study also investigates gender differences by fitting the
hypothesised partial mediation model to the male data. A multiple group structural equation model was fitted
to data obtained from both female (N = 5426) and male (N = 5394) further education students in Iceland.
The direct effect from reported physical/psychological trauma to reported false confessions emerged as the
only significant effect in females. In males, the direct effect of latent stress-sensitivity on false confessions is
significant, but also the indirect effect from both reported experience of physical/psychological trauma and
disturbances involving parents through latent stress-sensitivity to false confessions is significant. This study
has solidified the notion that a history of physical violence in particular at home may be a critical susceptibility
factor amongst females. In males, self-report stress-sensitivity may be the critical susceptibility factor, both
explaining the effect of physical/psychological trauma in the homeon false confessions, and increasing sensitivity
to exogenous interview pressure.

(in press) Legal and Criminological Psychology

Purpose: The Gudjonsson Compliance Scale (GCS) remains, in terms of its psychometrics, an under-r... more Purpose: The Gudjonsson Compliance Scale (GCS) remains, in terms of its psychometrics, an under-researched instrument, in which gender differences in particular have been insufficiently examined. The aim of this research was to therefore investigate the effect of gender on the factor structure of the GCS.

Method: The GCS was administered to 441 females and 250 males. The data was factor analysed, with 1, 2, 3 and 4-factor solutions tested and compared. Procrustean rotation was applied to the male factor-loading matrix to investigate structural equivalence across gender.

Results: Although a 3-factor solution was the best fit to the male GCS data, a 4-factor solution was the most acceptable fit to the female data. Whilst each of the factors had a high degree of determinacy, the identity coefficients (IC) indicated that these factors differ non-trivially across gender.

Conclusion: The GCS may measure different aspects of compliance across males and females, which may explain the gender differences in compliance found within the literature to-date. The work also allows insight into why males and females may end up complying with police requests, which might ultimately help to inform strategies, implemented by police, to manage vulnerable general population suspects and witnesses. There is a need now to further investigate the structure of compliance across ethnic groups and/or countries where the GCS is administered.

Blog article, written for the Open University

This study investigates the interplay between the reported experiences of negative life events, r... more This study investigates the interplay between the reported experiences of negative life events, reported levels of nerves, fear and tension experienced over the past 30 days, and reported false confessions. Data were obtained from 11388 students in further education in Iceland, out of which 5439 participants were male and 5837 were female. Single level, random intercept, structural equation models were fitted showing that latent stress-sensitivity, indicated by levels of nerves, tension, fear, and the number of negative life events experienced exerted a significant direct effect on the likelihood of false confessions. Stress-sensitive interviewees (those reporting high levels of nerves, fear, tension and negative events) may be more susceptible to environmental influences, due to heightened physiological responsiveness towards and a negative perception of situations and social encounters, with false confessions being a direct consequence of this. A suggestion from the findings is that the type of false confession (the reason for it) may possibly dependent upon which contextual trigger has influenced the interviewee the most – those within the police interview itself and/or pressures from the wider environment within which they reside.

Personality and Individual Differences, Jan 2014

The aim of this study was to investigate the role of trait anxiety in the relationship between th... more The aim of this study was to investigate the role of trait anxiety in the relationship between the reported experience of negative life events and interrogative suggestibility. 127 participants completed the Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale (GSS), the Life Events Questionnaire and the Neuroticism domain on the NEO Personality-Inventory Revised. Multivariate regression modelling showed that: (a) the extent to which interviewees reported and rated their life events negatively exerted a direct, positive, effect on yield 1, yield 2 and shift scores – especially yield 2 and shift scores; and (b) trait anxiety moderated the effect of this negative life events intensity rating on yield 1 scores, such that the effect was strongest at high trait anxiety scores. Trait anxiety may therefore be a valid indicator of suggestibility in the absence of explicit pressure, whereas interpretative factors may be a critical predictor of suggestibility in the presence of or after pressure has been applied. Implications and future directions are discussed.

Personality and Individual Differences, Nov 19, 2013

The aim of this study is to investigate the extent to which attachment anxiety and avoidance best... more The aim of this study is to investigate the extent to which attachment anxiety and avoidance best explain the variation in scores on compliance factors 1 (difficulty with pressure) and 2 (eagerness to please and meet expectations), across males and females. 143 female and 100 male participants completed the Gudjonsson Compliance Scale, the Relationship Scale Questionnaire and the Life Events Questionnaire (to account for participants’ experience of negative life events, when estimating the effect of attachment on the compliance factors). Multivariate regression modelling showed that: (i) in both males and females, attachment avoidance alone explained a significant proportion of the variance in factor 1 scores; (ii) in females, both attachment avoidance and anxiety levels accounted for the variance in factor 2 scores (the effect of attachment anxiety emerged in the negative direction); and (iii) neither attachment anxiety nor attachment avoidance levels explained a significant amount of the variance in male factor 2 scores. This study suggests three possible mechanisms explaining the negative effect of attachment anxiety on factor 2 scores in females; one of which implying that eagerness to please tendencies may not always be a sign of psychological vulnerability, but could also reflect pro-social cooperation.

Personality and Individual Differences

In the light of recent studies into the impact of cognitive load on detecting deception, the impa... more In the light of recent studies into the impact of cognitive load on detecting deception, the impact of cognitive load on faking on the Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale (GSS) was investigated. Eighty undergraduate students participated in the study, and were randomly assigned to one of four conditions resulting from a combination of the factors: instruction type (genuine or instructed faking, see Hansen, Smeets, & Jelicic, 2009) and concurrent task (yes or no). Findings show that instructed fakers, not performing a
concurrent task, score significantly higher on yield 1 in comparison to genuine interviewees. This is in line with previous studies into faking on the GSS. However, instructed fakers, performing a concurrent task, achieved significantly lower yield 1 scores than instructed fakers not performing a concurrent task. Genuine (non fakers) showed a different response to increased cognitive load during the dual-task paradigm. This study suggests that increasing cognitive load may potentially indicate (and preclude) faking
attempts on the yield dimension of the Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale.

Since the turn of the century much research has explored the concept of interrogative suggestibil... more Since the turn of the century much research has explored the concept of interrogative suggestibility, with recent research highlighting a sizeable link between the reported experience of negative life events (NLEs) and performanceon the Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale 1 (GSS1). The present study sought to
reinvestigate the previously found novel relationship, as well as explore the role of field dependence as a possible coping mechanism implemented during interview by such vulnerable interviewees. As expected, highly significant correlations
between NLEs and the suggestibility components of the GSS emerged. Field dependence, however, failed to correlate significantly with either NLE or GSS scores. Nonetheless, some additional findings relating to age, NLEs, and shift scores on the GSS were noted, which may help further our understanding of the
NLE to interrogative suggestibility relationship. A new group of vulnerable interviewees, who are as yet unrecognized by the police or courts, has also been identified.

Since the overturning of the Guildford Four and Birmingham Six convictions, in 1989 and 1991 resp... more Since the overturning of the
Guildford Four and Birmingham Six
convictions, in 1989 and 1991
respectively, much research has
been conducted into interview
techniques and the causes of false
confessions.
In 2008 evidence emerged of a
link between the experience of life
adversity and interrogative
suggestibility. This work opened
the door to the notion that
psychological vulnerabilities during
police questioning may sometimes
stem from characteristics
reinforced through mere exposure
to negative environmental
influences. This article presents
this new evidence and offers insight
into why some suspects, who do not
appear to be vulnerable, end up
with an increased risk of making
false confessions during police
interview.

Research over the past few years has uncovered a consistent link between the reporting of intense... more Research over the past few years has uncovered a consistent link between the reporting of intense negative life events and interrogative suggestibility on the Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale (GSS). This study (N = 130) now investigates the functional form of this relationship. Findings show that a linear regression model provides the most acceptable fit to the observed values for yield 1, yield 2, shift and total suggestibility scores. However, results also show the presence of non linear, quadratic, aspects to the relationship between the experience of life adversity and yield 1 scores. Up until now GSS scores were thought to increase linearly with level of adversity experienced: this study provides some evidence that, for the yield 1 subscale of the GSS, this may not be the case – high levels of adversity may not necessarily lead to an increased risk of accepting misleading information during questioning as once presumed.

This study uses structural equation modelling to investigate the psychological mechanism underpin... more This study uses structural equation modelling to investigate the psychological mechanism underpinning interrogative suggestibility on the Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale (GSS). It considers the relationship between neuroticism (vulnerability especially) and compliance within the Five-Factor personality model,fearful avoidant attachment (FAA), the experience of intense negative life events (iNLE) and interrogative suggestibility. Each participant completed the GSS 1, the Life Events Questionnaire, the Relationship Scale Questionnaire, and the NEO Personality Inventory-Revised. Findings show that: (i) vulnerability and FAA correlate; FAA patterns indirectly affect misinformation acceptance both in the absence of pressure (Yield 1) and in response to pressure (Yield 2) through iNLE. (ii) FAA patterns and compliance indirectly affect sensitivity to interrogative pressure (Shift scores) through iNLE. An endogenous tendency towards distress, FAA, and compliant tendencies (with respect to Shift scores) may be the basis of individual differencesin interrogative suggestibility. This could manifest as false statements and inconsistencies inanswer during questioning.

This study investigates the role of attachment anxiety and the experience of intense life adversi... more This study investigates the role of attachment anxiety and the experience of intense life adversity in the development of compliance. It also seeks to specify which types of negative life events may be especially relevant in encouraging compliant behaviour, and whether gender may moderate this effect. Participants (N = 125) completed the Gudjonsson Compliance Scale, the Life Events Questionnaire and the Relationship Scale Questionnaire. Contrary to previous research, attachment anxiety and the reported experience of intense negative life events appear to be associated with significantly lower compliance scores. Gender appears not to moderate this relationship. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses show that inter-personal negative life events and attachment anxiety together predict lower compliance scores. This is the first study to show that adult romantic attachment anxiety and the experience of intense negative life events can also lead to psychological resilience, reducing the probability of false confessions and statements during police interview.

This study investigates the relationship between the number and intensity of negative life events... more This study investigates the relationship between the number and intensity of negative life events experienced (nNLE and iNLE respectively), neuroticism (N), compliance (C), and interrogative suggestibility on the Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale 1 (GSS 1). Participants (N = 127) completed the GSS1, the Life Events
Questionnaire, and the NEO Personality Inventory-Revised. Results show that nNLE correlates significantly with both Yield 1 and Yield 2. Blended models including iNLE and N as independent variables, C as the mediator, and GSS scores as dependent variables provide the most acceptable accounts of GSS scores. The models demonstrate that: (i) the effects of iNLE, N and C on Yield 1 are not statistically significant,
(ii) iNLE (but not N or C) exerts a significant and positive direct effect on Yield 2, and (iii) iNLE, N and C exert significant and positive direct effects on shift scores. Findings suggest that answer-shifting on the GSS may result from a negative mindset within interviewees, a desire to alleviate distress, and from
compliant tendencies in response to feelings of uncertainty and expectations of success. They further imply that false confessions, in interviewees reporting iNLEs, could also result from compliance with interviewer-pressure or negative feedback during questioning.

Personality and Individual Differences, 2016

(in press) Legal and Criminological Psychology

Blog article, written for the Open University

Personality and Individual Differences, Jan 2014

Personality and Individual Differences, Nov 19, 2013

Personality and Individual Differences

Since the overturning of landmark wrongful convictions in the 1980s and 90s (such as the Guildfor... more Since the overturning of landmark wrongful convictions in the 1980s and 90s (such as the Guildford Four, Birmingham Six and Cardiff Three cases), much research has been dedicated to the improvement of investigative interview strategies, and the causes of false confessions. In 2008 evidence emerged linking the experience of life adversity and interrogative suggestibility, which since then has triggered further investigation into the role of exposure to negative [childhood/early] environmental influences and subsequent psychological vulnerability. In the mean time, stemming from the 2008 research, the impact of experiencing life adversity on false confessions has also now been shown. This talk will present, and discuss with you, this relatively new line of inquiry, and the evidence to emerge from it thus far, offering insight into why some suspects, who do not appear to be vulnerable (through having no formal clinical diagnosis or learning disability), may end up with an increased risk of making false confessions during police interview.