Ulrike Rohn | Tallinn University (original) (raw)
Books by Ulrike Rohn
What media content attracts audiences across cultures and what does not? What does the cross-cult... more What media content attracts audiences across cultures and what does not? What does the cross-cultural audience demand depend on? The author takes a new approach to understanding cultural barriers to the success of foreign media content by analyzing the entry strategies of Time Warner, Disney, Viacom, News Corporation, and Bertelsmann with regard to China, India, and Japan in terms of their respective localization efforts. In-depth interviews with companies' representatives give an insight into how they view the need for locally-produced media in these countries. The author develops and employs the Lacuna and Universal Model that provides a new theoretical classification of reasons for the cross-cultural success and failure of media content, as well as the Vertical Barrier Chain that locates cultural barriers in the wider context of legal, political, and economic barriers to successful entry into foreign media markets.
Papers by Ulrike Rohn
Handbook of Media Management and Economics, 2018
Journalism & Mass Communication Educator, 2015
The media sphere has changed significantly as a result of globalization, technology, and new habi... more The media sphere has changed significantly as a result of globalization, technology, and new habits of media use. Scholars in journalism and mass communication thus call on a transformation and reinvention of higher education in the field. The purpose of this article is to investigate how media management is taught across different institutions, and how educators cope with this interdisciplinary, international, and dynamic field. In an online-survey, we asked educators from fourteen different countries across Europe about the key themes addressed in teaching, the pedagogies applied, and the fundamental challenges they perceive.
The aim of this article is to report, summarize and spread the results of a large scale European ... more The aim of this article is to report, summarize and spread the results of a large scale European research project funded by EBU Radio in 2011 to map best practices in social media and European public radio, focusing on the way successful public service radio formats have incorporated social media in their production flow. The programmes have been selected for one of the following reasons: programmes that are audience leaders in their country, use innovative radio language or are youth oriented productions. The survey has been carried out by a team of ten European researchers from seven countries on a sample of 28 public radio programmes analysed for two months between January and February 2011. The research team attempted to answer the empirical question: ‘How social media are used by public service?’. Are there some common threads and shared practices among successful programmes in different countries? The team adopted an empirical approach based on social media content analysis and interviews with radio producers. This article will present the main results of this empirical research project. It will conclude with practical guidelines for public radio production and social media innovation.
International Journal of Cultural Studies, 2018
This article addresses the 'wicked' problems met by contemporary public service media institution... more This article addresses the 'wicked' problems met by contemporary public service media institutions: to address the fragmentation of audiences across platforms; to have a positive impact on civil society and societal coherence; to facilitate cultural diversity; and to work with private creative industries and facilitate their growth. These objectives can be reduced to a conflict in producing both public and private value. In this article, we build on the combination of innovation systems theory and public value theory to investigate the interrelationships between the production of these different forms of value. Our case study is Estonia's national pre-selection competition for the Eurovision Song Contest, which is innovative in terms of its cross-media framing and its approach to working with private partners to facilitate the development of the Estonian popular music system. Value creation as a contemporary 'wicked' problem for PSM Much in Western thought starts with Aristotle. If we study how media generate value and what this 'value' is like, we could start again with Aristotle and his distinction between 'use value' and 'exchange value' (laid out in Politics). While later theorists updated the analysis of value generation with the evolution of market capitalism, this basic original distinction may have value of its own for distinguishing the functions of public and private media. Public service is aimed at generating 'use value' for a variety of societal agents. In contrast, private enterprises that operate in markets aim at generating exchange value for the commodities they produce. These concepts are not mutually exclusive: media markets and information goods are classically characterised by complex ways in which surplus value (Marx, 1951) is generated out of the publically available use value or 'symbolic value' (Bolin, 2011) by private media industries. Yet, the challenge of network era media markets is the further blurring of boundaries between the generation of 'public value' (see further articulations below) and ways to obtain private assets ('private value'). The operations of contemporary 'value networks' (Bovet and Martha, 2000) of media markets are complicated by some activities conducted in these networks being effectively non-market activities, such as fan labour where participants contribute work without motivation to turn the results into exchange value (e.g. Von Hippel, 2005). This relates to the observation by Hardt and Negri (2004) that value is increasingly created in collaborative
International sales and operations are becoming increasingly important to many media companies. B... more International sales and operations are becoming increasingly important to many media companies. Being able to utilize an internationally well-known brand facilitates the entry into foreign markets. When operating internationally, the question of whether to localize or to standardize brand communication and content across markets is crucial. After discussing the benefits of an approach of standardization and a possible audience for globally standardized brands, this chapter introduces reasons why companies may, however, choose to localize. Furthermore, it discusses possible areas of localization as well as strategic options for foreign market entry through media brands. This chapter concludes with a call for further research on international branding that takes into account the special characteristics of media products and markets.
Based on the current keyword 'sharing economy', this article applies the notion of sharing to ong... more Based on the current keyword 'sharing economy', this article applies the notion of sharing to ongoing changes in the TV audience market. Through in-depth interviews with TV providers and the analysis of previous research, it points to sharing activities by TV audiences as well as TV providers that represent forms of collaborative production and collaborative consumption. In detail, the article distinguishes three types of sharing activities in the audience market: distribution, interaction and audience circulation. The article emphasizes the value creation in the TV audience market through sharing activities by audiences and proposes an 'activity net of value creation' in the TV audience market to illustrate such dynamics.
The paper focuses on the challenges that the ‘sharing economy’ presents to the updating of the Eu... more The paper focuses on the challenges that the ‘sharing economy’ presents to the updating of the European Union’s (EU) Audiovisual Media Service Directive (AVMSD), part of the broader Digital Single Market (DSM) strategy of the EU. It suggests that the convergence of media markets and the emergence of video-sharing platforms may make the existing regulative tradition obsolete. It demonstrates an emergent need for regulatory convergence – AVMSD to create equal terms for all technical forms of content distribution. It then shows how the operational logic of video-sharing platforms undermines the AVMSD logic aimed at creating demand for professionally produced European content – leading potentially to the liberalisation of the EU audiovisual services market. Lastly, it argues that the DSM strategy combined with sharing-related network effects may facilitate the evolution of the oligopolistic structure in the EU audiovisual market, potentially harmful for cultural diversity.
The TV industry has traditionally relied on advertising and subscription fees for revenue. Recent... more The TV industry has traditionally relied on advertising and subscription fees for revenue. Recently, brand extensions and co-branding strategies have been rediscovered as income sources. A prominent example of such a strategy is the TV format Dragons' Den, which has been locally produced in many different countries. We use this intriguing case to explore the extensive and intricate co-branding relationships and brand extensions in the business-to-consumer and the business-to-business settings of TV companies. Our paper analyses global adaptations and cultural branding of Dragons'Den; in particular, brand extensions and co-branding strategies.
Journal of Brand Strategy, Apr 2015
Media companies differ from conventional product producing companies in a number of ways, which a... more Media companies differ from conventional product producing companies in a number of ways, which also influence their brand management. Based on the special situation of media companies that includes their operating in an environment of structural changes as well as their dual organization structure with the creative content production on one side and the marketing on the other, this paper introduces results of in-depth interviews with media managers in Germany, which were conducted in 2011 and 2013/14. The aim of these interviews was to gain an understanding of how the companies managed their brands in social network sites (SNSs), the problems they faced and the lessons they had learned. The interviews showed that many media companies have difficulties navigating in the new environment of SNSs, in which it is the SNSs and their users and not the companies that set most of the rules for how media brands may be presented. Most crucially, the interviews revealed that it is mainly the editors and journalists who create and maintain SNS profiles for the media brands, with no or only minor involvement of the marketing departments. The paper emphasises the role of an integrated brand communication in order to fully utilize all the branding possibilities that SNSs offer.
To the delight of the renewed editorial team, the Journal of Media Business Studies (JOMBS) recei... more To the delight of the renewed editorial team, the Journal of Media Business Studies
(JOMBS) receives an increasing number of submissions every week. Given the
growing interest in the study of media business, whether from the angle of economics,
management, strategy, organisation studies, marketing, consumer behaviour, innovation
and entrepreneurship or other contributing disciplines, this editorial aims to clarify
how we look at the field and wish to move the journal forward. In particular, we want
to address a few questions that we believe are central for those who wish to publish
their research with us and thereby contribute to the academic discussion. This article
gives a more elaborate explanation to the aims and scope of JOMBS.
The International Encyclopedia of Digital Communication and Society (edited by Robin Mansell and Peng Hwa Ang), Feb 2015
This entry provides a definition of social media business models. A business model helps to analy... more This entry provides a definition of social media business models. A business model helps to analyze and communicate how a business works in terms of value proposition, value creation and provision, as well as financial endurance. Based on these three business model components, the entry describes possible manifestations of business models for organizations that are active in the social media domain. It differentiates between two kinds of organizations: enterprises that own and operate social media platforms and companies that use social media platforms for their communication with customers, prospects, and everyone else interested in the company or its products and services.
China Policy Institute Blog, The University of Nottingham, Nov 28, 2014
Baltic Media Screen Review, Nov 2014
This article looks at the factors that have influenced the Estonian adaptation of the Idols forma... more This article looks at the factors that have influenced the Estonian adaptation of the Idols format, Eesti otsib superstaari. Based on existing literature, as well as on interviews with representatives of the local TV industry, this article suggests that the most influential factor is the small size of the Estonian TV market. Most changes to the original format have been made for practical reasons and not due to cultural considerations. Hence, this article argues that it is mostly market and industry logistics that influence programme imports and local adaptations and not so much the cultural shareability of such programmes.
In: A Digital Janus - Looking Forward, Looking Back. Dennis Moser, Susan Dun, 2014, (Eds.): Inter-Disciplinary Press
Media companies currently face competitive market environments characterised by immense structura... more Media companies currently face competitive market environments characterised by immense structural changes driven by new technologies, convergence and audiences increasingly selecting new media channels that provide their desired information at the preferred time and place over traditional media channels. On social media platforms prosumers converse about companies, their brands, products and services and also expect to engage in direct dialogues with content producers. Even without these transformations the branding of media products and services is challenging due to their specific properties as experience and credence goods. Reputation is vital as audiences seek reliable information from other users. Hence, ‘building and positioning a brand will become a key skill in the future.’1 Social Network Sites (SNSs), and most notably Facebook, have changed the setting and conditions in which media companies may present their brands and how they communicate with audiences of different ages. In the light of the structural changes in the media and with regard to the importance of brands in the fragmented media business, this chapter investigates how media companies can translate their brand(s) into social network environments. It addresses how they conduct brand management in SNS and how they perceive potentials and challenges in terms of building and maintaining strong media brands in these environments. Based on in-depth interviews with managers of German media companies responsible for maintaining profiles on SNS for their newspapers, magazines, radio or television stations, the chapter evaluates the activities of media companies on SNSs and their implications for media brand management. The results show that it is the online editors and the journalists who create and maintain social network profiles for the media brands rather than the marketing departments, indicating that a strategic implementation of SNS for media branding is still in its early stages.
kommunikation@gesellschaft, 2014
Soziale Netzwerkplattformen im Internet wie Facebook erfreuen sich großer Beliebtheit. Der vorlie... more Soziale Netzwerkplattformen im Internet wie Facebook erfreuen sich großer Beliebtheit. Der vorliegende Beitrag widmet sich der Fragestellung, inwieweit es durch soziale Netzwerkplattformen
zu einer Konnektivität zwischen Nutzern dieser Plattformen kommt. Hierzu wird zunächst ein neues mehrdimensionales Modell vorgestellt. Dieses unterscheidet zwischen einer indirekten und einer direkten Konnektivität. Zudem berücksichtigt das Modell, dass Konnektivität sowohl über geografische als auch über kulturelle Grenzen hinweg stattfinden kann. Den beiden Dimensionen einer direkten und einer indirekten Konnektivität werden jeweils zwei Konnektivitätsmerkmale zugeordnet. So drückt sich eine indirekte Konnektivität durch eine grenzüberschreitende Verbreitung von sozialen Netzwerkplattformen sowie eine grenzüberschreitende Standardisierung von sozialen Netzwerkplattformen aus. Eine direkte
Konnektivität zeigt sich dagegen durch grenzüberschreitende Kontaktlisten der Nutzer und eine grenzüberschreitende Verbreitung von Onlinemedieninhalten in den durch die direkte
Vernetzung von Nutzern entstandenen Kommunikationsräumen. Der empirische Teil dieses
Beitrags enthält eine Onlinebefragung deutscher, estnischer und russisch-estnischer Nutzer (n = 1.464). Die Ergebnisse zeigen unterschiedliche Ausprägungen der Konnektivität für die Dimensionen direkt und indirekt sowie hinsichtlich der Frage, ob Konnektivität ein über geografische oder kulturelle Grenzen stattfindender Prozess verstanden wird. Die Ergebnisse sind dabei nicht nur von der jeweiligen Untersuchungsgruppe abhängig, sondern auch vom Alter der Nutzer und davon, ob diese Facebook oder eine andere Plattform nutzen.
Journal of Social Media Studies, Mar 2014
The increasing popularity of Social Network Sites (SNSs), and especially the international succes... more The increasing popularity of Social Network Sites (SNSs), and especially the international success of Facebook, raises questions about a possible connectivity between SNS users from different cultural or national backgrounds. Whereas recent research mostly considers connectivity in terms of a direct connection between users via their personal networks in SNSs, this paper proposes a multidimensional and multifaceted model of possible connectivity that takes into account various forms of direct and indirect connectivity through SNSs. Based on focus group interviews and a large-scale survey of German, Estonian and Russian- Estonian SNS users, this paper presents the results in terms of the characteristics of the various suggested features of connectivity, that is, cross-border success of SNSs; cross-border standardization of SNSs; cross- border contacts; and cross-border distribution of online content via SNSs. The results demonstrate varying degrees of cross-border connectivity both for different connectivity features and for different user groups.
Journal of Media Business Studies, Dec 2013
In previous research size aspects have been discussed as key determinants for any explanation how... more In previous research size aspects have been discussed as key determinants for any explanation how television broadcasting works. This paper addresses the question how the market and the firm size influence the social network site (SNS) communication by television stations. The study examines the Facebook activities of twelve stations in four countries and investigates the degrees of sophistication along key success factors for SNS communication. Yet, different from what has been argued from the resources argument our results suggest that the small program diversity and the incentives lead to a more sophisticated SNS communication in small markets and by small companies.
Acta Universitatis Sapientiae, Social Analysis
Abstract. Social networking sites (SNS) are an emerging social phenomenon across Europe. As in ma... more Abstract. Social networking sites (SNS) are an emerging social phenomenon across Europe. As in many other European countries, the US-owned network Facebook has taken the lead over domestic and local SNS amongst German and Estonian SNS users. Members of the Russian-speaking minority in Estonia, however, prefer SNS that originate in Russia. Based on a new model of proximity in SNS as well as on the theory of network effects, this paper aims at contributing to an understanding of the role that cultural and geographic proximity play in the choice and usage of SNS as well as of the attraction of SNS that cross cultural and geographic boundaries. Focus group interviews with German, Estonian and Russian-Estonian SNS users suggested many similarities across these groups in terms of the comparative importance of various areas of cultural and geographic proximity in SNS that the proposed model of proximity introduces. Furthermore, they suggested the attraction of SNS that have an international membership. Despite these similarities across groups, the Russian-Estonian group exhibited many differences compared to the other two groups as the Russian-speaking interviewees expressed the greatest need for cultural proximity but the lowest need for geographic proximity in SNS. The article discusses the results of the focus group interviews especially in terms of the suggested diaspora-like attitudes and behavior of the interviewed Russian-Estonians and the implied separation between the ethnic Estonians and Russian-Estonians in SNS. Understanding this inter-ethnic connectivity in SNS is more important than ever in the light of the increasing role that social media play in people’s lives.
This paper puts forward the Vertical Barrier Chain as a new analytical framework that enables to ... more This paper puts forward the Vertical Barrier Chain as a new analytical framework that enables to study the internal and external forces that may influence companies’ choice of entry mode into foreign media markets. In the Vertical Barrier Chain, forces in the regulatory, political, economic, and cultural environment are labeled ‘barriers’, because — from the target market’s perspective — they may represent filters to the successful entry of foreign media companies through content or ownership. The Vertical Barrier Chain arranges these barriers according to how much they dictate a particular strategy if the entering company wants to be successful in the target market. It is interdisciplinary, because it incorporates both knowledge from international business and media management research as well as from media and cultural studies. When applied in empirical studies, the Vertical Barrier Chain helps to understand the relative significance of each of these barriers with respect to companies’ entry choices between international standardization and local adaptation. This paper presents the results of a study in which the entry strategies of five of the world’s largest western media companies in terms of China, India, and Japan were analyzed in the light of the respective Vertical Barrier Chains in these markets. The results show the significance of economic market forces as the main determent of a company’s choice of entry strategy. Although legal, political, and cultural barriers to market entry are crucial, the companies’ assessment of these barriers, their readiness to give in to them, or their creativity in working around them depends on the economic attractiveness of the particular market.
What media content attracts audiences across cultures and what does not? What does the cross-cult... more What media content attracts audiences across cultures and what does not? What does the cross-cultural audience demand depend on? The author takes a new approach to understanding cultural barriers to the success of foreign media content by analyzing the entry strategies of Time Warner, Disney, Viacom, News Corporation, and Bertelsmann with regard to China, India, and Japan in terms of their respective localization efforts. In-depth interviews with companies' representatives give an insight into how they view the need for locally-produced media in these countries. The author develops and employs the Lacuna and Universal Model that provides a new theoretical classification of reasons for the cross-cultural success and failure of media content, as well as the Vertical Barrier Chain that locates cultural barriers in the wider context of legal, political, and economic barriers to successful entry into foreign media markets.
Handbook of Media Management and Economics, 2018
Journalism & Mass Communication Educator, 2015
The media sphere has changed significantly as a result of globalization, technology, and new habi... more The media sphere has changed significantly as a result of globalization, technology, and new habits of media use. Scholars in journalism and mass communication thus call on a transformation and reinvention of higher education in the field. The purpose of this article is to investigate how media management is taught across different institutions, and how educators cope with this interdisciplinary, international, and dynamic field. In an online-survey, we asked educators from fourteen different countries across Europe about the key themes addressed in teaching, the pedagogies applied, and the fundamental challenges they perceive.
The aim of this article is to report, summarize and spread the results of a large scale European ... more The aim of this article is to report, summarize and spread the results of a large scale European research project funded by EBU Radio in 2011 to map best practices in social media and European public radio, focusing on the way successful public service radio formats have incorporated social media in their production flow. The programmes have been selected for one of the following reasons: programmes that are audience leaders in their country, use innovative radio language or are youth oriented productions. The survey has been carried out by a team of ten European researchers from seven countries on a sample of 28 public radio programmes analysed for two months between January and February 2011. The research team attempted to answer the empirical question: ‘How social media are used by public service?’. Are there some common threads and shared practices among successful programmes in different countries? The team adopted an empirical approach based on social media content analysis and interviews with radio producers. This article will present the main results of this empirical research project. It will conclude with practical guidelines for public radio production and social media innovation.
International Journal of Cultural Studies, 2018
This article addresses the 'wicked' problems met by contemporary public service media institution... more This article addresses the 'wicked' problems met by contemporary public service media institutions: to address the fragmentation of audiences across platforms; to have a positive impact on civil society and societal coherence; to facilitate cultural diversity; and to work with private creative industries and facilitate their growth. These objectives can be reduced to a conflict in producing both public and private value. In this article, we build on the combination of innovation systems theory and public value theory to investigate the interrelationships between the production of these different forms of value. Our case study is Estonia's national pre-selection competition for the Eurovision Song Contest, which is innovative in terms of its cross-media framing and its approach to working with private partners to facilitate the development of the Estonian popular music system. Value creation as a contemporary 'wicked' problem for PSM Much in Western thought starts with Aristotle. If we study how media generate value and what this 'value' is like, we could start again with Aristotle and his distinction between 'use value' and 'exchange value' (laid out in Politics). While later theorists updated the analysis of value generation with the evolution of market capitalism, this basic original distinction may have value of its own for distinguishing the functions of public and private media. Public service is aimed at generating 'use value' for a variety of societal agents. In contrast, private enterprises that operate in markets aim at generating exchange value for the commodities they produce. These concepts are not mutually exclusive: media markets and information goods are classically characterised by complex ways in which surplus value (Marx, 1951) is generated out of the publically available use value or 'symbolic value' (Bolin, 2011) by private media industries. Yet, the challenge of network era media markets is the further blurring of boundaries between the generation of 'public value' (see further articulations below) and ways to obtain private assets ('private value'). The operations of contemporary 'value networks' (Bovet and Martha, 2000) of media markets are complicated by some activities conducted in these networks being effectively non-market activities, such as fan labour where participants contribute work without motivation to turn the results into exchange value (e.g. Von Hippel, 2005). This relates to the observation by Hardt and Negri (2004) that value is increasingly created in collaborative
International sales and operations are becoming increasingly important to many media companies. B... more International sales and operations are becoming increasingly important to many media companies. Being able to utilize an internationally well-known brand facilitates the entry into foreign markets. When operating internationally, the question of whether to localize or to standardize brand communication and content across markets is crucial. After discussing the benefits of an approach of standardization and a possible audience for globally standardized brands, this chapter introduces reasons why companies may, however, choose to localize. Furthermore, it discusses possible areas of localization as well as strategic options for foreign market entry through media brands. This chapter concludes with a call for further research on international branding that takes into account the special characteristics of media products and markets.
Based on the current keyword 'sharing economy', this article applies the notion of sharing to ong... more Based on the current keyword 'sharing economy', this article applies the notion of sharing to ongoing changes in the TV audience market. Through in-depth interviews with TV providers and the analysis of previous research, it points to sharing activities by TV audiences as well as TV providers that represent forms of collaborative production and collaborative consumption. In detail, the article distinguishes three types of sharing activities in the audience market: distribution, interaction and audience circulation. The article emphasizes the value creation in the TV audience market through sharing activities by audiences and proposes an 'activity net of value creation' in the TV audience market to illustrate such dynamics.
The paper focuses on the challenges that the ‘sharing economy’ presents to the updating of the Eu... more The paper focuses on the challenges that the ‘sharing economy’ presents to the updating of the European Union’s (EU) Audiovisual Media Service Directive (AVMSD), part of the broader Digital Single Market (DSM) strategy of the EU. It suggests that the convergence of media markets and the emergence of video-sharing platforms may make the existing regulative tradition obsolete. It demonstrates an emergent need for regulatory convergence – AVMSD to create equal terms for all technical forms of content distribution. It then shows how the operational logic of video-sharing platforms undermines the AVMSD logic aimed at creating demand for professionally produced European content – leading potentially to the liberalisation of the EU audiovisual services market. Lastly, it argues that the DSM strategy combined with sharing-related network effects may facilitate the evolution of the oligopolistic structure in the EU audiovisual market, potentially harmful for cultural diversity.
The TV industry has traditionally relied on advertising and subscription fees for revenue. Recent... more The TV industry has traditionally relied on advertising and subscription fees for revenue. Recently, brand extensions and co-branding strategies have been rediscovered as income sources. A prominent example of such a strategy is the TV format Dragons' Den, which has been locally produced in many different countries. We use this intriguing case to explore the extensive and intricate co-branding relationships and brand extensions in the business-to-consumer and the business-to-business settings of TV companies. Our paper analyses global adaptations and cultural branding of Dragons'Den; in particular, brand extensions and co-branding strategies.
Journal of Brand Strategy, Apr 2015
Media companies differ from conventional product producing companies in a number of ways, which a... more Media companies differ from conventional product producing companies in a number of ways, which also influence their brand management. Based on the special situation of media companies that includes their operating in an environment of structural changes as well as their dual organization structure with the creative content production on one side and the marketing on the other, this paper introduces results of in-depth interviews with media managers in Germany, which were conducted in 2011 and 2013/14. The aim of these interviews was to gain an understanding of how the companies managed their brands in social network sites (SNSs), the problems they faced and the lessons they had learned. The interviews showed that many media companies have difficulties navigating in the new environment of SNSs, in which it is the SNSs and their users and not the companies that set most of the rules for how media brands may be presented. Most crucially, the interviews revealed that it is mainly the editors and journalists who create and maintain SNS profiles for the media brands, with no or only minor involvement of the marketing departments. The paper emphasises the role of an integrated brand communication in order to fully utilize all the branding possibilities that SNSs offer.
To the delight of the renewed editorial team, the Journal of Media Business Studies (JOMBS) recei... more To the delight of the renewed editorial team, the Journal of Media Business Studies
(JOMBS) receives an increasing number of submissions every week. Given the
growing interest in the study of media business, whether from the angle of economics,
management, strategy, organisation studies, marketing, consumer behaviour, innovation
and entrepreneurship or other contributing disciplines, this editorial aims to clarify
how we look at the field and wish to move the journal forward. In particular, we want
to address a few questions that we believe are central for those who wish to publish
their research with us and thereby contribute to the academic discussion. This article
gives a more elaborate explanation to the aims and scope of JOMBS.
The International Encyclopedia of Digital Communication and Society (edited by Robin Mansell and Peng Hwa Ang), Feb 2015
This entry provides a definition of social media business models. A business model helps to analy... more This entry provides a definition of social media business models. A business model helps to analyze and communicate how a business works in terms of value proposition, value creation and provision, as well as financial endurance. Based on these three business model components, the entry describes possible manifestations of business models for organizations that are active in the social media domain. It differentiates between two kinds of organizations: enterprises that own and operate social media platforms and companies that use social media platforms for their communication with customers, prospects, and everyone else interested in the company or its products and services.
China Policy Institute Blog, The University of Nottingham, Nov 28, 2014
Baltic Media Screen Review, Nov 2014
This article looks at the factors that have influenced the Estonian adaptation of the Idols forma... more This article looks at the factors that have influenced the Estonian adaptation of the Idols format, Eesti otsib superstaari. Based on existing literature, as well as on interviews with representatives of the local TV industry, this article suggests that the most influential factor is the small size of the Estonian TV market. Most changes to the original format have been made for practical reasons and not due to cultural considerations. Hence, this article argues that it is mostly market and industry logistics that influence programme imports and local adaptations and not so much the cultural shareability of such programmes.
In: A Digital Janus - Looking Forward, Looking Back. Dennis Moser, Susan Dun, 2014, (Eds.): Inter-Disciplinary Press
Media companies currently face competitive market environments characterised by immense structura... more Media companies currently face competitive market environments characterised by immense structural changes driven by new technologies, convergence and audiences increasingly selecting new media channels that provide their desired information at the preferred time and place over traditional media channels. On social media platforms prosumers converse about companies, their brands, products and services and also expect to engage in direct dialogues with content producers. Even without these transformations the branding of media products and services is challenging due to their specific properties as experience and credence goods. Reputation is vital as audiences seek reliable information from other users. Hence, ‘building and positioning a brand will become a key skill in the future.’1 Social Network Sites (SNSs), and most notably Facebook, have changed the setting and conditions in which media companies may present their brands and how they communicate with audiences of different ages. In the light of the structural changes in the media and with regard to the importance of brands in the fragmented media business, this chapter investigates how media companies can translate their brand(s) into social network environments. It addresses how they conduct brand management in SNS and how they perceive potentials and challenges in terms of building and maintaining strong media brands in these environments. Based on in-depth interviews with managers of German media companies responsible for maintaining profiles on SNS for their newspapers, magazines, radio or television stations, the chapter evaluates the activities of media companies on SNSs and their implications for media brand management. The results show that it is the online editors and the journalists who create and maintain social network profiles for the media brands rather than the marketing departments, indicating that a strategic implementation of SNS for media branding is still in its early stages.
kommunikation@gesellschaft, 2014
Soziale Netzwerkplattformen im Internet wie Facebook erfreuen sich großer Beliebtheit. Der vorlie... more Soziale Netzwerkplattformen im Internet wie Facebook erfreuen sich großer Beliebtheit. Der vorliegende Beitrag widmet sich der Fragestellung, inwieweit es durch soziale Netzwerkplattformen
zu einer Konnektivität zwischen Nutzern dieser Plattformen kommt. Hierzu wird zunächst ein neues mehrdimensionales Modell vorgestellt. Dieses unterscheidet zwischen einer indirekten und einer direkten Konnektivität. Zudem berücksichtigt das Modell, dass Konnektivität sowohl über geografische als auch über kulturelle Grenzen hinweg stattfinden kann. Den beiden Dimensionen einer direkten und einer indirekten Konnektivität werden jeweils zwei Konnektivitätsmerkmale zugeordnet. So drückt sich eine indirekte Konnektivität durch eine grenzüberschreitende Verbreitung von sozialen Netzwerkplattformen sowie eine grenzüberschreitende Standardisierung von sozialen Netzwerkplattformen aus. Eine direkte
Konnektivität zeigt sich dagegen durch grenzüberschreitende Kontaktlisten der Nutzer und eine grenzüberschreitende Verbreitung von Onlinemedieninhalten in den durch die direkte
Vernetzung von Nutzern entstandenen Kommunikationsräumen. Der empirische Teil dieses
Beitrags enthält eine Onlinebefragung deutscher, estnischer und russisch-estnischer Nutzer (n = 1.464). Die Ergebnisse zeigen unterschiedliche Ausprägungen der Konnektivität für die Dimensionen direkt und indirekt sowie hinsichtlich der Frage, ob Konnektivität ein über geografische oder kulturelle Grenzen stattfindender Prozess verstanden wird. Die Ergebnisse sind dabei nicht nur von der jeweiligen Untersuchungsgruppe abhängig, sondern auch vom Alter der Nutzer und davon, ob diese Facebook oder eine andere Plattform nutzen.
Journal of Social Media Studies, Mar 2014
The increasing popularity of Social Network Sites (SNSs), and especially the international succes... more The increasing popularity of Social Network Sites (SNSs), and especially the international success of Facebook, raises questions about a possible connectivity between SNS users from different cultural or national backgrounds. Whereas recent research mostly considers connectivity in terms of a direct connection between users via their personal networks in SNSs, this paper proposes a multidimensional and multifaceted model of possible connectivity that takes into account various forms of direct and indirect connectivity through SNSs. Based on focus group interviews and a large-scale survey of German, Estonian and Russian- Estonian SNS users, this paper presents the results in terms of the characteristics of the various suggested features of connectivity, that is, cross-border success of SNSs; cross-border standardization of SNSs; cross- border contacts; and cross-border distribution of online content via SNSs. The results demonstrate varying degrees of cross-border connectivity both for different connectivity features and for different user groups.
Journal of Media Business Studies, Dec 2013
In previous research size aspects have been discussed as key determinants for any explanation how... more In previous research size aspects have been discussed as key determinants for any explanation how television broadcasting works. This paper addresses the question how the market and the firm size influence the social network site (SNS) communication by television stations. The study examines the Facebook activities of twelve stations in four countries and investigates the degrees of sophistication along key success factors for SNS communication. Yet, different from what has been argued from the resources argument our results suggest that the small program diversity and the incentives lead to a more sophisticated SNS communication in small markets and by small companies.
Acta Universitatis Sapientiae, Social Analysis
Abstract. Social networking sites (SNS) are an emerging social phenomenon across Europe. As in ma... more Abstract. Social networking sites (SNS) are an emerging social phenomenon across Europe. As in many other European countries, the US-owned network Facebook has taken the lead over domestic and local SNS amongst German and Estonian SNS users. Members of the Russian-speaking minority in Estonia, however, prefer SNS that originate in Russia. Based on a new model of proximity in SNS as well as on the theory of network effects, this paper aims at contributing to an understanding of the role that cultural and geographic proximity play in the choice and usage of SNS as well as of the attraction of SNS that cross cultural and geographic boundaries. Focus group interviews with German, Estonian and Russian-Estonian SNS users suggested many similarities across these groups in terms of the comparative importance of various areas of cultural and geographic proximity in SNS that the proposed model of proximity introduces. Furthermore, they suggested the attraction of SNS that have an international membership. Despite these similarities across groups, the Russian-Estonian group exhibited many differences compared to the other two groups as the Russian-speaking interviewees expressed the greatest need for cultural proximity but the lowest need for geographic proximity in SNS. The article discusses the results of the focus group interviews especially in terms of the suggested diaspora-like attitudes and behavior of the interviewed Russian-Estonians and the implied separation between the ethnic Estonians and Russian-Estonians in SNS. Understanding this inter-ethnic connectivity in SNS is more important than ever in the light of the increasing role that social media play in people’s lives.
This paper puts forward the Vertical Barrier Chain as a new analytical framework that enables to ... more This paper puts forward the Vertical Barrier Chain as a new analytical framework that enables to study the internal and external forces that may influence companies’ choice of entry mode into foreign media markets. In the Vertical Barrier Chain, forces in the regulatory, political, economic, and cultural environment are labeled ‘barriers’, because — from the target market’s perspective — they may represent filters to the successful entry of foreign media companies through content or ownership. The Vertical Barrier Chain arranges these barriers according to how much they dictate a particular strategy if the entering company wants to be successful in the target market. It is interdisciplinary, because it incorporates both knowledge from international business and media management research as well as from media and cultural studies. When applied in empirical studies, the Vertical Barrier Chain helps to understand the relative significance of each of these barriers with respect to companies’ entry choices between international standardization and local adaptation. This paper presents the results of a study in which the entry strategies of five of the world’s largest western media companies in terms of China, India, and Japan were analyzed in the light of the respective Vertical Barrier Chains in these markets. The results show the significance of economic market forces as the main determent of a company’s choice of entry strategy. Although legal, political, and cultural barriers to market entry are crucial, the companies’ assessment of these barriers, their readiness to give in to them, or their creativity in working around them depends on the economic attractiveness of the particular market.
Qualitative Research Reports in Communication , 2014
"International social networking sites (SNSs), such as Facebook 1 , outnumber domestic network... more "International social networking sites (SNSs), such as Facebook
1
, outnumber domestic networks in terms of membership numbers in many countries. This article reports on focus group interviews with Estonian, Russian-Estonian, and German SNS users whose aim it was to investigate their desire for cultural or geographic proximity in SNSs, as well as the attraction of network effects of large international SNSs. Based on a new model of proximity in SNSs, the interviews suggested that users self-create proximity in SNSs more than they desire it from what the SNSs offer to them. The interviews also suggested that the extent to which users self-create or desire cultural and geographic proximity differs across cultural groups, as the Russian-Estonian SNS users indicated the greatest need for cultural proximity, but a comparatively small need for geographic proximity. Fur-thermore, the interviews suggested that users are attracted to SNSs with a large inter-national membership base, as it reassures them that no change of network is required if they ever wished to connect with people from different cultures or countries. Large international SNSs attract users with network effects, and it lies in the nature of SNSs that they allow users to self-create as much proximity as they wish.
Free access: http://www.tandfonline.com/eprint/CcNgDq8jeyjx4Zfwtw7s/full"
The increasing popularity of social network sites (SNS) has changed how TV station brands present... more The increasing popularity of social network sites (SNS) has changed how TV station brands present themselves. In previous research size aspects have been discussed as key determinants for any explanation how television broadcasting works. This paper addresses the question how the size of the market as well as the size of the firm influence how sophisticated the SNS communication by television stations is. The study examines the Facebook activities of twelve stations in four countries and investigates the degrees of sophistication along key success factors for SNS communication.
Theoretical background According to Shih (2011) the most important requirements for a successful branding via SNS are authenticity, transparency, engagement and real-time exposure. Hence, the present study looks at these four factors in order to detect the extent of sophistication of the SNS communication by television stations. But how do size aspects determine the level of sophistication of SNS communication? Regarding the market size, there are two possible, but contradictory answers to this depending on whether one applies a resource view or a diversity view. If one considers the limited financial and personal resources available in small markets as highlighted by Puppis (2009) and Lowe et al. (2011), companies in small markets are not able to invest much into the elaboration of their communication activities. This leads to the assumption of a positive relationship between the market size and the sophistication of SNS communication (Proposition 1.1). On the other hand, larger markets have the capacity to produce more television programs than smaller markets (Lowe et al. 2011) resulting in an overall higher program diversity (Yan and Park, 2006). Contrastingly, in small markets, where diversity is low and content is interchangeable, companies need to differentiate themselves from each other through communication activities (Kiefer, 2005). The diversity perspective, therefore, suggests a negative relationship between the size of a market and the effort broadcasting stations put into their activities in SNS (Proposition 1.2).
As with the influence of the market size, we can follow two contradictory lines of arguments regarding the firm’s size. On one hand, according to the resource view, larger and financially better-situated media firms are able to invest more in their communication activities (Proposition 2.1). The incentive view, which highlights the importance of possible benefits and rewards (Frisch 1993), suggests, on the other hand, that bigger companies see less of a need to invest in SNS communications than smaller companies in less comfortable market positions. Thus, the incentive view, leads to following proposition: The larger a media company’s market share is, the less sophisticated is its SNS communication (Proposition 2.2).
Methodology In order to extract the influence of the market and the firm size on the sophistication of SNS-communication our explorative, comparative case-studies analysis follows a method of difference design (Rohlfing, 2009), in which the measures for the dependent variable as well one of the independent variables show distinct measures, while the rest of the independent variables have comparable values (Mill, 1843/ 1974). Four countries of different population size (UK, Germany, Austria and Estonia) were selected in which the SNS communication by twelve television stations was analyzed. The analysis was conducted through a content analysis. Based on the key success factors for SNS communication proposed by Shih (2011) the case television stations’ activities on Facebook in May 2012 were analyzed by two coders following a determined codebook (intercoder reliability of 0.81 (Holsti)).
Results The results of the study indicate, that both the size of the market as well as the size of the firm influence how sophisticated the SNS communication of television stations is. Yet, different from what has been argued from the resources argument, our results suggest the diversity and incentive argumentation. Accordingly, it is not the small resources of small markets and small companies that have a negative effect on the extent of SNS communication, but it is the small program diversity in small markets and the much needed possible rewards of a successful SNS communication that serve as incentives for small companies, which lead to a more sophisticated SNS communication in small markets and by small companies. Having studied the television stations’ activities over a period of one month, we see several implications that follow from our research. These regard both the managerial as well as the theoretical perspective and lead to suggestions for future research.
Social network sites (SNSs) are increasingly popular around the world. Due to their digital natur... more Social network sites (SNSs) are increasingly popular around the world. Due to their digital nature, SNSs are potentially global, since they allow for cross-border connectivity between users from different countries and cultures. Yet, they are network technologies that are “only the means that enact the trend described in the social structure” (Castells, 2009:24). Hence, the aim of this paper is to investigate whether and to what extent SNSs actually lead to connectivity between SNS users from different countries and cultures. For this purpose, this paper introduces the results of a large-scale survey (N= 1.464) with Estonian, Russian-Estonian and German SNS users. The aim of this survey was to better understand the manifestation of several features of both direct and indirect connectivity through SNSs for the case user groups. These features are part of a model, which was developed through focus group interviews with the studied SNS user groups prior the survey. Thus, the proposed model distinguishes two features of direct connectivity: cross-border contacts and cross-border distribution of online media content. Furthermore, it sees two features of indirect connectivity: cross-border success of SNSs and cross-border standardization of SNSs. The paper discusses the results of the survey that show varying degrees of cross-border connectivity both for the different connectivity features as well as for the different user groups studied. Despite the differences, the survey, however, shows that users are more indirectly connected than directly.
Due to their properties and market structures media products have always needed trusted brands an... more Due to their properties and market structures media products have always needed trusted brands and a good reputation for their success. With the current changes in their competitive environment and with users moving towards interactive and mobile platforms media branding faces new challenges. In particular, social networking sites (SNS), and most notably Facebook, have changed the arena in which media companies present their brands and how they communicate with audiences. Based on in-depth interviews with managers of German media companies responsible for maintaining profiles in SNS, the paper evaluates the activities of media companies in SNS and their implications for media brand management. The results show that it is the online editors and the journalists who create and maintain social network profiles for the media brands rather than the marketing departments, indicating that a strategic implementation of SNS for media branding is still in its early stages.
Social network sites (SNS) have become a mass phenomenon across Europe. However, there has been l... more Social network sites (SNS) have become a mass phenomenon across Europe. However, there has been little cross-cultural research in terms of SNS choice and usage. The study presented aimed at filling this gap by examining SNS choice and usage across three different cultural groups with a special focus on the practice of forwarding or recommending media content via SNS profiles.
This study combines qualitative and quantitative research methods. In a first step, focus group interviews with SNS users in Germany and Estonia were conducted. In Estonia, this included both a group with Estonians as well as with the Russian-speaking minority in Estonia. Through these interviews, possible behaviors, experiences and opinions in terms of SNS choice and usage were identified. Based on these interviews, large-scale online surveys with SNS users were conducted in Germany and Estonia. The samples were representative for the internet population in these countries in terms of age, gender, language, and place of living.
Both the focus group interviews and the online surveys made obvious cross-cultural differences in terms of SNS choice and usage. However, in all three cultural groups, the tendency to switch from a local or domestic SNS, such as StudiVZ or rate, to a more international one, mainly Facebook, was detected. This tendency, however, was far less obvious among the Russian Estonians than among the other groups. Whereas the choice of SNS was seen to decreasingly reflect a demand for cultural proximity, the personal networks within the SNS were seen to reflect a great demand for cultural proximity. Such a demand is expressed through a low degree of interconnectivity across cultural groups through such SNS and through the fact that media content that users recommend to each other through such SNS by and large is local and domestic.
The study makes obvious cross-cultural differences in SNS choice and usage, and it highlights the role of network externalities as determinants of SNS choices that make large, international SNS very attractive to users, despite the expressed need for cultural proximity.
This presentation focuses on cultural differences in terms of choice of and usage practices in So... more This presentation focuses on cultural differences in terms of choice of and usage practices in Social Networks Sites (SNS) between young people in three different cultural groups: Germans, Estonians as well as people from the Russian-speaking minority in Estonia.
It presents the results of focus group interviews as well as online surveys with these three groups. The interviews and surveys made obvious differences in the following areas: 1) The choice of SNS, 2) the choice of language, 3) the composition of the contact list in terms of the relation between numbers of contacts from the own culture and from other cultures, 4) the practice of “following” certain media outlets through SNS or announcing on SNS to “like” certain media outlets, 5) the practice of forwarding and recommending media to contacts via SNS.
The presentation uses the term “cultural proximity” that originates from the global media studies (Straubhaar, 1991), and it presents a new model that lays out the specific role of cultural proximity in the preferences for as well as behavior in SNS. Since the interviews and surveys also included questions regarding possible changes of choice and usage of SNS over time, different dynamics in the three youth groups in terms of SNS are discussed.
Countries with emerging media markets attract international companies with their high growth pote... more Countries with emerging media markets attract international companies with their high growth potential of audience demand and advertising spending. Where the media industry is weak and does not grow as fast as the audience and advertising demand, foreign companies often find it sufficient to enter and operate in the emerging market through an undifferentiated and export-oriented strategy. As soon as the media industry emerges and gains strength, foreign media companies increasingly find themselves competing with domestic media companies that often produce media that better meets the taste of the local audience. With increasing competition from local companies, the export-oriented and undifferentiated strategy approach is less likely be successful and foreign companies need to further commit to the market by adapting their operations and media.
Such stages of changing conditions that foreign companies find in emerging media markets could be observed almost anywhere, starting from the 1980s, when many media markets around the world underwent deregulation and privatization processes. In China, similar processes can be observed. Although the Chinese media market is highly restricted and foreign media companies are virtually prohibited from investing in most Chinese media industries, foreign media companies have tried to find grey areas in which rules and legislation are not as crystal clear for entering and operating in the market. Over the years, these companies have faced changing challenges due to the emerging media industry in China.
The aim of this presentation is to shed light on the changing challenges foreign media companies face in China. The presentation will present the results of a research project in which the strategies of some of the largest western media companies in the Chinese market were analyzed and both western and Chinese company managers were asked to give insights into the conditions that the western companies find in China. The presentation will present the results of this project by assigning these conditions to the Vertical Barrier Chain that serves as a new interdisciplinary framework for helping to structure legal, political, economic and cultural market forces which may present barriers to a successful strategy in a foreign market. The presentation will show how these barriers in China have changed over time and how they are likely to change in the future, and it will argue that in emerging media markets such as China, foreign media companies face growing challenges to be successful with local audiences. Furthermore, it will show to what extent and how these challenges that western media companies encounter in China are perceived differently by Chinese and western company managers.
The presentation is based on a larger research project that was aimed at understanding cultural b... more The presentation is based on a larger research project that was aimed at understanding cultural barriers to the success of western media content in China, India, and Japan by analyzing the strategies of five western companies – Time Warner, Disney, Viacom, News Corporation, and Bertelsmann. With its focus on China, this presentation considers the companies’ activities in the Chinese TV, book and magazine publishing markets, in the light of regulatory and economic market forces. Special attention will be given to the extent to which the companies’ media products have been localized. Key to the research project were in-depth interviews with company managers that were conducted between 2005 and 2007. For China, interviewees were asked why they thought that certain western media content was or was not successful in China. The presentation quotes some of the key statements made by the interviewees and assigns them to the Lacuna and Universal Model that provides for a new theoretical classification of different kinds of cultural barriers, as well as content attributes and circumstances that lie behind the cross-cultural success of media. The presentation argues that the extent to which western media content encounters cultural barriers is comparatively low in China. A closer look at the reasons behind the receptiveness to western media content in China, however, will show that the interest in western media content will lessen in the future, particularly due to the growing domestic industry and the audience’s increasing exposure to international content. The presentation supports this argument with quotations from the interviews with the company managers.
The presentation will provide some of the results of a larger research project that aimed at achi... more The presentation will provide some of the results of a larger research project that aimed at achieving a better understanding of cultural barriers to the success of foreign media content in general, and of cultural barriers to the success of western media content in China, India, and