Journal of Historical Sciences Studies | University of Tehran (original) (raw)

Papers by Journal of Historical Sciences Studies

Historical Sciences Studies, 2020

"Akhbarions" of the 1st and 2nd centuries AH have had lasting effects on the Islamic historiograp... more "Akhbarions" of the 1st and 2nd centuries AH have had lasting effects on the Islamic historiography and the understanding of the Muslims of later centuries. Amer al-Shaabi (28-105 AH) is one of Akhbarions. He, who was famous in the fields of Fiqh and Hadith, and history, has received much attention from Islamic historians. There are contradictory narratives by him about the events and the influential Muslims of the Islamic world. The main purpose of this study is to identify and analyze the contradictions in the narratives of al-Shaabi. The findings reveal that Abu Omar's narrative changed as a result of the socio-political changes of Kufa and the interests of the nobility of Hamdān tribe and his own. These changes fall under three categories. The period of 28-66 AH was influenced by his childhood environment so that we can detect traces of Shiism in his narratives. The second episode of his life began with his separation from Mokhtar's uprising (66 AH) and continued until Ibn al-Ashath's uprising (81 AH). At this stage, he distanced himself from Shiism under the influence of his status in Fiqh and as a reaction to the growth of the Ghulat. Thus, his narratives became anti-Shiite, although he was still a supporter of Ali in this period. The defeat of ibn al-Ashash (84 AH) marked the third episode of his life in which he became devoted to the Umayyad dynasty to the extent that he quoted a story in favor of the Umayyad Caliphate and against Imam Ali.

Historical Sciences Studies,, 2020

After the assassination of Ali ibn Abi Talib by Abd al-Rahman ibn Muljam al-Moradi, the murderer ... more After the assassination of Ali ibn Abi Talib by Abd al-Rahman ibn Muljam al-Moradi, the murderer was arrested. According to famous historical sources and Hadith, Imam Ali gave orders as to how Inb Muljam should be treated. Famous historians have reported hard and violent dealings of Imam Ali's family with the killer. On the one hand these reports come from authentic and first-hand sources of Islamic history and on the other, they are in contrast with Islam's and Imam Ali's recommendations regarding the proper conduct toward ibn Muljam. The question is what happened to ibn Muljam and how the accounts of the historians should be analyzed. Thus, the purpose of this research is to discover a historical truth. It seems that the distortion of historical accounts and concealing some facts have led to the ambiguity and confusion of the accounts on the fate of ibn Muljam.

Historical Sciences Studies, 2020

At the beginning of the twentieth century, Iraq was part of the Ottoman Empire and consisted of t... more At the beginning of the twentieth century, Iraq was part of the Ottoman Empire and consisted of the three states of Baghdad, Basra, and Mosul. The most important event in that period was the emergence of the Arab nationalist movement, a comprehensive movement and a harbinger of Arab unity. In Iraq, the Arab National Movement was formed as a result of several factors. The present research adopts a descriptive-analytical method in order to answer these questions: What factors influenced the formation of the Arab National Movement in Iraq? What developments take place? And in the end, what was the result? The article shows that in the second half of the nineteenth century, the Iraqi elite was formed under the influence of modern education in Ottoman schools. That group became the nucleus of Arab nationalists during the Young Turks’ rule. The policies of imposing the Turkish identity on the Arabs played a prominent role in arousing the sense of national identity and the unity of the Iraqi elite with the Arab National Movement. In response to the policies of the rulers of Istanbul, they formed nationalist groups and activities in Iraq’s cities in order to spread Arab nationalism. Their activities led to the preservation of the unity of the empire, but as the First World War progressed, the Iraqis also moved towards full independence from the Ottoman rule, which resulted in the participation of Iraqi officers in the 1916 Arab Revolt. At the end of the war, the most important result of the Arab National Movement in Iraq was the Sunni Arabs’ gaining power.

Historical Sciences Studies, 2020

The present research seeks to provide a description of the rise and fall of the Acre's trade betw... more The present research seeks to provide a description of the rise and fall of the Acre's trade between 1191 AD and 1291 AD. Throughout its tumultuous history, this city became a valuable base for the trade of the eastern Mediterranean civilizations. By the Muslim conquest, Acre was considered as the naval base under the Umayyads and Abbásids. With the rise of the Tulunids, the path to Acre's progress was levelled, so that during the Fatimid period, Acre was able to regain its commercial role. During the Crusades, Acre appeared successful, and even turned the Tyre down, replaced it with four commercial networks. In this descriptive-analytical study, we seek to examine the commercial position of the port of Acre during the Crusades and to seek historical evidences of its flourishing and declining causes. The results show that the port of Acre was able to gain a significant foothold on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean at the beginning of this century, but with the Mongol invasion of the Levant and the change of trade routes, the Acre port declined .

Historical Sciences Studies, 2020

Mahdism has been one of the important and fundamental issues in the Islamic period of Iran. This ... more Mahdism has been one of the important and fundamental issues in the Islamic period of Iran. This issue has suffered much from problems such as false Mahdis and this has caused problems for the Islamic community. These problems have continued to concern the community to the present. Seyed Mohammad Kelardashti was one of these Mahdis. He made his claim public in Kelardasht in 1892 and assembled a group of people. The most important questions addressed in this study are what the background of his claim was, what the current government did to confront him, and what consequences he faced. It seems that the background of his claim was the gap between the people of Khajeh Vand tribe with each other, with Kelardasht inhabitants, and even with the government. Although this rebellion was suppressed and he was arrested and imprisoned, he was released from prison after a while and was assigned a pension. The present study attempts to investigate this issue based on the documents of the National Library and Archives of the Islamic Republic of Iran

Historical Sciences Studies, 2020

Due to geographical, climatic, and natural conditions, the Persian Gulf trade has been lively in ... more Due to geographical, climatic, and natural conditions, the Persian Gulf trade has been lively in all historical periods. But the lack of complete and reliable statistics before Naser al-Din Shah Qajar's period (1831-1896) makes it difficult to speculate about the position of the Persian Gulf ports in southern-Iran trade. The data of the British-Indian Government administrative offices registered during Naser al-Din Shah Qajar's period provides an opportunity to study the details of the Persian Gulf trade ports. Surely such statistics can help us examine the factors affecting the trade of Southern-Iran. The factors mentioned in Persian sources are natural events. Considering that Persian sources have a brief discussion of natural events, we can only understand the magnitude and extent of the effects of natural events through the political reports and the reports of secret reporters in the south. The information of administrative offices makes it possible to explore the impact of natural events on the Southern-Iran trade. Accordingly, the present study tries to investigate the effects of natural factors on the trading of Iranian ports in the Persian Gulf on the basis of these statistic reports. It tries to provide a qualitative analysis of the effects of natural events on imports and exports of southern Iran. It shows that natural events, especially wheat prices, had a significant impact on the trade of southern Iran.

Historical Sciences Studies, 2020

The Safavid government, like many other monarchies in the history of Iran, had a bureaucratic and... more The Safavid government, like many other monarchies in the history of Iran, had a bureaucratic and patrimonial structure. Although such a political system appears at first glance to be an absolute monarchy in which all decisions are made by the head of the hierarchy of political power, because of the existence of bureaucracy there was an opportunity of forming assemblies of advisers. In fact, besides the seeming role of the ruling king in making all decisions, there were some decision-making institutions in between the internal layers of the monarchy. These institutions finalized and then issued decisions in the form of the king’s orders or other high-level seniors’ instructions. Considering the frequent use of the term “Majles-e Behesht-Ayin” (The Royal Assembly of the Safavid Senior Officials) in historical texts of the Safavid Era, which mostly refers to the consultation gatherings in the Safavid royal court, there seems to be evidence for the existence of a royal assembly in such gatherings. Therefore, this research aims at proving the existence of a royal assembly of the Safavid senior officials and illustrating a clear image of its status and functions in the decision-making system of the Safavid royal court.

Historical Sciences Studies, 2020

The city of Vladikavkaz, founded during the expansion of the Russian Empire to the Caucasus in th... more The city of Vladikavkaz, founded during the expansion of the Russian Empire to the Caucasus in the late eighteenth century, gradually attracted immigrants from inside and outside the empire. This city, especially since the second half of the nineteenth century, became one of the destinations for permanent and temporary migrations from Persia. With the increase of the Iranian population in Vladikavkaz and the surrounding areas, the Iranian consulate was established there in 1897. The aim of this study is to provide a general overview of the activities of Iranian officials and immigrants in Vladikavkaz since the establishment of the Iranian consulate in 1897 until the collapse of the Tsarist Empire and the outbreak of civil war in Russia based on the consular records in the archive of Iran’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Through its efforts to establish and maintain a Shia mosque, Nowruz School, and Hemmat Association, the Iranian consulate played an important role in supporting solidarity among the Iranian diaspora in the city and protecting the rights of the Iranian citizens. However, the affairs with the Russian Empire, hostility and rivalry inside the Iranian Foreign Ministry, and financial problems were the main challenges faced by the Persian consul in Vladikavkaz.

Historical Sciences Studies, 2020

The poetic and mystical aspects of Rumi’s Masnavi are very striking, but, as in other texts, the ... more The poetic and mystical aspects of Rumi’s Masnavi are very striking, but, as in other texts, the influence of the poet’s historical era is detectible so that it reflects the social realities of its period. Therefore, Masnavi could also be considered as historical evidence that may be used by contemporary historians as a source of information about the time of the poet. “Tabriz’s Muhtasib” is a poem in Masnavi that apparently reveals some of the poet’s viewpoints on his time. This research argues that the changes in the character Muhtasib and in the location of the story correspond with the abolition of the establishment of Hisbah and the election of Tabriz as the capital of the Ilkhanate Empire on the one hand and the importance of Omar, the second caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate, in Hisbah affairs and Rumi’s interest in him on the other. These events influenced Rumi’s recreation of this ancient story and caused it to contain historical connotations.

Historical Sciences Studies, 2020

Revision of the genealogy and chronology of the Arsacid dynasty has been the pivot of Farhad Assa... more Revision of the genealogy and chronology of the Arsacid dynasty has been the pivot of Farhad Assar’s studies in recent years. Simonetta, who finds errors in Assar’s schema, has himself ignored several key numismatic parameters and his proposed chronology is, thus, in contrast with the widely accepted Sellwood-Mørkholm schema. Sellwood and Mørkholm had already established a meticulous chronology of the drachms and tetradrachms of the “Dark Age” of the Arsacid. Although their schema has some minor defections, it rarely contradicts the extant documents from the Dark Age. This research compares the proposed schemas of Simonetta and Assar to determine which one is reliable. The results reveal inconsistencies between Simonetta’s ideas and the extant historical and numismatic documents. Furthermore, Simonetta ignores the political circumstances of the first months of the reign of Orodes I. Assar’s proposed chronology of the coins agrees well with extant documents from the Dark Age. Simonetta’s conclusions, however, should be used with caution and those who are willing to adopt them in further studies should ensure their reliability.

Historical Sciences Studies, 2020

Onomastics (or onomatology) refers to the study of proper names of any kind including the names o... more Onomastics (or onomatology) refers to the study of proper names of any kind including the names of people (anthroponyms) and places (toponyms). The purpose of this article is to explain different aspects of onomastics and its related knowledge, as well as its necessity and importance. Scrutinizing onomastics research background and the status of this knowledge in scientific studies of Iran is the other purpose of this article. Since names change with geography, language, religion, and time, studying the process of these changes at different historical periods and geographical areas can answer many questions. In fact, the importance of Onomastics is its secondary functions, such as cultural, social, political, and historical ones, which can have important results. For instance, it can determine the reasons for the changes in the names of people and places in different historical periods as well as the extent of the influence of different languages ​​in a particular geographical area. It is important to consider that onomastics in Iran requires further research in various branches; because most of the studies on names are devoted to the contemporary period and the names before this period have been given less attention.

Historical Sciences Studies, 2020

There were few governments in ancient Iran that were completely protected from political turmoil ... more There were few governments in ancient Iran that were completely protected from political turmoil and instability. The studies on the history of the Achaemenid Empire two centuries after the death of Cyrus the Great indicate that they faced many revolts and rebellions. When the Egyptians were informed of the death of Xerxes and the conflict that had arisen over his replacement, they decided to fight for their independence. Therefore, they immediately provided an army and from 460 to 454 BCE they rebelled against the Persians. The purpose of the present study is to examine the process of Egyptians’ insurrection during the reign of Artaxerxes I and to identify the factors that were effective in creating stability/instability or convergence/ divergence in the Egyptian territory under the rule of the Achaemenid. The results of the article indicate that in the satrapy of Egypt, there was an instability in the established political power and a temporary change of the positions of the politicians.

Historical Sciences Studies, 2020

In the final years of the First World War, the Jungle Movement went into a battle against the Eng... more In the final years of the First World War, the Jungle Movement went into a battle against the English troops resulted from the military changes of the Caucasian region. The English troops needed a quick passage to the Caucasus through Gilan, but the Jungle Movement prevented them and this culminated in a battle. This battle is one of the most important events in the history of the movement and it had a strong effect on its destiny. Hence, the study and analysis of it, particularly thetactics adopted by the movement and their effects, is very important. Therefore, the main goal of this article is to answer the questions as to what tactics the movement employed in the battle against the English and what the results of these tactics were for the movement. In general, four tactics are distinguished in this battle: regular warfare, partisan warfare, urban warfare, and peace. The analysis of the quality of these tactics demonstrates that, except for the partisan warfare, other tactics had negative results for the movement.

Historical Sciences Studies, 2020

The conflict between reason and religion in the Iranian medieval history is an issue affected by ... more The conflict between reason and religion in the Iranian medieval history is an issue affected by the scientific sources of Muslims from the early centuries of the Islamic Era. Regardless of their commonalities, reason and religion are generally known to be opposing forces, as the observance of one undermines the other. Rational knowledge and religious science have each been either declining or growing depending on the historical circumstances. Ever since the emergence of Islam and through the course of its solidification, intellectuality, too, underwent an evolutionary process. Such evolution, however, can be interpreted neither as concordance or compromise between reason and religion, nor as absolute disagreement. Rather, it is a course towards supremacy resulting from the historical circumstances. The eleventh and twelfth centuries witnessed continuous conflicts between religion and intellect, as it is reflected in Ghazali’s books and Averroes’s rebuttals to them. Regardless of the abstract issues involved, the conflicts between Averroes and Ghazali provide an in-depth understanding of the historical context of intellect and Sharia in the course of the Islamic history. This confrontation is in fact the result of the development of rationality and the socio-political circumstances.

Historical Sciences Studies, 2020

The title Cannoneer (Tūpchibāshi) became widespread with the increasing use of firearms since the... more The title Cannoneer (Tūpchibāshi) became widespread with the increasing use of firearms since the early Safavid Era. According to the first references to this position during the reign of Shah Tahmasb I, a cannoneer was a skilled professional who was able to both cast (TūpRizi) and fire (TūpAndāzi) cannons. Since cannons were essentially in the hands of the central government, cannoneers soon became important people in the court. With the military reforms of Shah Abbas I, Cannoneer, maintaining the two aforementioned responsibilities, entered the military hierarchy and became one of the leaders of the army. After the two important wars of Yerevan (1635) and Qandahar (1648), both of which were won by means of the artillery, the standing of the artillery improved so that the office of cannoneer and the artillery unit were officially created in 1654. Since then, until the end of the Safavid Era, a cannoneer was a military official who commanded the artillery in war. Thus, Cannoneer and three other offices, namely Qurchibāshi (Commander of the Royal Bodyguards), Qullar Āghāsi (Commander of the Royal Slaves), and Tofangchi Āghāsi (Commander of the Royal Musketeers), became the four pillars of the Safavid army. This paper studies the emergence of Cannoneer in the army of the Safavid dynasty to clarify its position and tasks in the military ranks of that era.

Historical Sciences Studies, 2020

Sasanians’ converting to Zoroastrianism and their relations with Zoroastrian clerics have been im... more Sasanians’ converting to Zoroastrianism and their relations with Zoroastrian clerics have been important issues of the history studies on the Sasanians. In the past one and a half century, a number of scholars, referring to a report on Sasan by Tabari, the eponymous ancestor of the Sasanians, have assumed religious office such as mobed, hērbed, or the guardian of the fire temple for him, and have taken it as evidence for the Sasanians’ presumed priestly lineage. Some have even considered the success of the Sasanians in overcoming the Arsacid Empire as an outcome of their new religious tendency. In addition, Agathias’s report on Ardashir I, the founder of the Sasanian dynasty, has also been used by some scholars as another piece of evidence to suppose a clerical rank for him. Reexamining Tabari’s report and evaluating it in the context of the Zoroastrian legal system, this study demonstrates that Sasan’s office in Anahit’s fire temple was not a priestly one, and Agathias’s report on Ardashir has nothing to do with priestly ranks. To the contrary, these reports, when considered together with all other evidence, confirm Sasanians’ connection with the local nobility of Fars region.

Historical Sciences Studies, 2020

Scholars, in their study of Parthian numismatics, mostly emphasize the Hellenistic and Persian-Ac... more Scholars, in their study of Parthian numismatics, mostly emphasize the Hellenistic and Persian-Achaemenid heritage and ignore Scythian cultural elements. One of the most important motifs on these coins is the upright headgear of the king. The main purpose of this research is to examine the origin of early Arsacid kings’ headgear which is generally assumed to be an imitation of Achaemenid satrapal coins and Persian culture. Due to the Scythian background of the Arsacids, however, the article proposes a Scythian origin for this headgear. It examines the origin of this headgear by comparing Arsacid coins with Achaemenid, Scythian, and Greek motifs and classical sources. The result of our comparison indicates that the Arsacid headgear, unlike the soft and loose Persian one, has a striking resemblance with the stiff pointed Scythian headgear which is depicted in Achaemenid and Greek art. Consequently, it can be argued that the early Arsacid headgear was probably a sort of Scythian headgear belonging to Aparni or Dahaean tribes. The trace of this headgear can be found in some classical texts in which it is refered to as “kurbasia.” The study of the terms used for headgears in these texts illustrates that the word kurbasia, which was initially used for the Scythian headgear, in later periods, was confused with an upright ridged Persian headgear exclusively for the Achaemenid great king. Apart from their similar stiffness, it seems that both headgears had a common neck protection which further caused their misidentification.

Historical Sciences Studies, 2020

The Great Game of Russia and Britain, which began in the early nineteenth century, led to the con... more The Great Game of Russia and Britain, which began in the early nineteenth century, led to the confrontation of the two powers in Iran until the early twentieth century. The Russian-British rivalry in Iran intensified after the second round of Iran-Russia wars in the Caucasus, when the restoration of Iran’s historical rule over Herat was on the agenda of the Iranian government, resulting in the siege of Herat in 1837, an incident that caused British politicians to worry about Russia’s expansion in the western borders of India. The findings of this study indicate that the idea of ​​capturing Herat was partly influenced by Russians’ support to divert the Iranian government’s attention from the Caucasus. In addition, with the Herat crisis and Britain’s concern about the expansion of Russia’s influence on the borders of India, the creation of a buffer state became vital in the framework of India’s defense strategy. Under the circumstances that Russians were supporting the Iranian court during the siege of Herat, Palmerston’s regional and extra-regional aggressive policy, followed by Russians’ passive stance, led to the rapid deployment of force to the Persian Gulf and ended the campaign in Herat in favor of Britain. Afterwards, Britain stabilized its position in today’s Afghanistan. Contrary to other studies that mostly examine the issue of Herat in the framework of Iran’s relations with Britain, Russia, or the Emirate of Afghanistan, this article examines the issue of Herat’s siege in the context of the Great Game.

Historical Sciences Studies, 2020

برای فهم بهتر اهمیت دیدگاه­های علمی استاد دکتر احسان اشراقی ضرورت دارد به وضع تاریخ و تاریخ­نگاری... more برای فهم بهتر اهمیت دیدگاه­های علمی استاد دکتر احسان اشراقی ضرورت دارد به وضع تاریخ و تاریخ­نگاری در دورۀ معاصر ایران توجه شود. در یک دسته‌بندی بزرگ، تاریخ­نگاری ایرانی را می­توان در دو بخش از آغاز دورۀ اسلامی تا مشروطیت و از دورۀ مشروطه به بعد بررسی کرد. در هریک از این دوره­ها فعالیت مورخان ایرانی ویژگی­هایی داشته که در عین تداوم سنت، تغییراتی نیز یافته است. این تغییرات در آستانة مشروطیت و پس از آن، همه‌جانبه­تر و پرشتاب­تر بوده است. تغییراتی که در دورة دوم ایجاد شد، دستاورد مهم دورۀ تجدد جامعۀ ایرانی بود و لذا به‌نظرمی­آید بررسی کوشش­های مورخانه و آثار و پژوهش­های دکتر اشراقی برای درک تأثیر تغییرات ناشی از تجدد ضروری است؛ به سخن دیگر، آن دسته از تغییراتی که تاریخ را از دانشی مبتنی بر قواعد و اسلوب قدیم پیش از تجدد، به آستانۀ یک رشتۀ تخصصی و مبتنی بر معیارهای علوم نوین تبدیل کرد.

Historical Sciences Studies, 2019

The inscriptions of Derbent, a city in Dagestan, Caucasus, are among the most important Sassanid ... more The inscriptions of Derbent, a city in Dagestan, Caucasus, are among the most important Sassanid inscriptions. They have been inscribed on the defensive wall of Derbent. Derbent's defense fortifications consist of walls that were built to defend against the invasion of nomadic tribes, usually located on the upper borderlands of the Sassanid Caucasus. The construction of defensive walls, promotion of their quality and strength, and the maintenance and restoration of these fortifications have been the main and primary tasks of Sassanid rulers against the invasion of these tribes. The construction phases of Derbent's defensive wall and its dating have been controversial among the researchers of this field. There are some inscriptions, in some parts of this wall, inscribed by the language of Sassanid Pahlavi. Of the 32 inscriptions on the Derbent's wall, the 3rd one has a historical significance due to a number that seems referring to a year with an unknown epoch. A variety of theories have been proposed about the reading of the number as well as its possible epoch. By reviewing some of these theories, it has been concluded that the mentioned number means the year 37. Considering the historical evidences, presented in the text of this paper, and based on our information about the king calendar of the Sassanians that its epoch was the year a Sassanid king sat on the throne, it can be guessed that the calendar epoch of the year 37, mentioned in the inscription, points the year Khosrow I crowned as the king. It can be claimed, accepting the suggestion, that the time for inscribing this historic record was the 37th anniversary of Khosrow Anushirvan's reign which coincides with 568-569 AD.

Historical Sciences Studies, 2020

"Akhbarions" of the 1st and 2nd centuries AH have had lasting effects on the Islamic historiograp... more "Akhbarions" of the 1st and 2nd centuries AH have had lasting effects on the Islamic historiography and the understanding of the Muslims of later centuries. Amer al-Shaabi (28-105 AH) is one of Akhbarions. He, who was famous in the fields of Fiqh and Hadith, and history, has received much attention from Islamic historians. There are contradictory narratives by him about the events and the influential Muslims of the Islamic world. The main purpose of this study is to identify and analyze the contradictions in the narratives of al-Shaabi. The findings reveal that Abu Omar's narrative changed as a result of the socio-political changes of Kufa and the interests of the nobility of Hamdān tribe and his own. These changes fall under three categories. The period of 28-66 AH was influenced by his childhood environment so that we can detect traces of Shiism in his narratives. The second episode of his life began with his separation from Mokhtar's uprising (66 AH) and continued until Ibn al-Ashath's uprising (81 AH). At this stage, he distanced himself from Shiism under the influence of his status in Fiqh and as a reaction to the growth of the Ghulat. Thus, his narratives became anti-Shiite, although he was still a supporter of Ali in this period. The defeat of ibn al-Ashash (84 AH) marked the third episode of his life in which he became devoted to the Umayyad dynasty to the extent that he quoted a story in favor of the Umayyad Caliphate and against Imam Ali.

Historical Sciences Studies,, 2020

After the assassination of Ali ibn Abi Talib by Abd al-Rahman ibn Muljam al-Moradi, the murderer ... more After the assassination of Ali ibn Abi Talib by Abd al-Rahman ibn Muljam al-Moradi, the murderer was arrested. According to famous historical sources and Hadith, Imam Ali gave orders as to how Inb Muljam should be treated. Famous historians have reported hard and violent dealings of Imam Ali's family with the killer. On the one hand these reports come from authentic and first-hand sources of Islamic history and on the other, they are in contrast with Islam's and Imam Ali's recommendations regarding the proper conduct toward ibn Muljam. The question is what happened to ibn Muljam and how the accounts of the historians should be analyzed. Thus, the purpose of this research is to discover a historical truth. It seems that the distortion of historical accounts and concealing some facts have led to the ambiguity and confusion of the accounts on the fate of ibn Muljam.

Historical Sciences Studies, 2020

At the beginning of the twentieth century, Iraq was part of the Ottoman Empire and consisted of t... more At the beginning of the twentieth century, Iraq was part of the Ottoman Empire and consisted of the three states of Baghdad, Basra, and Mosul. The most important event in that period was the emergence of the Arab nationalist movement, a comprehensive movement and a harbinger of Arab unity. In Iraq, the Arab National Movement was formed as a result of several factors. The present research adopts a descriptive-analytical method in order to answer these questions: What factors influenced the formation of the Arab National Movement in Iraq? What developments take place? And in the end, what was the result? The article shows that in the second half of the nineteenth century, the Iraqi elite was formed under the influence of modern education in Ottoman schools. That group became the nucleus of Arab nationalists during the Young Turks’ rule. The policies of imposing the Turkish identity on the Arabs played a prominent role in arousing the sense of national identity and the unity of the Iraqi elite with the Arab National Movement. In response to the policies of the rulers of Istanbul, they formed nationalist groups and activities in Iraq’s cities in order to spread Arab nationalism. Their activities led to the preservation of the unity of the empire, but as the First World War progressed, the Iraqis also moved towards full independence from the Ottoman rule, which resulted in the participation of Iraqi officers in the 1916 Arab Revolt. At the end of the war, the most important result of the Arab National Movement in Iraq was the Sunni Arabs’ gaining power.

Historical Sciences Studies, 2020

The present research seeks to provide a description of the rise and fall of the Acre's trade betw... more The present research seeks to provide a description of the rise and fall of the Acre's trade between 1191 AD and 1291 AD. Throughout its tumultuous history, this city became a valuable base for the trade of the eastern Mediterranean civilizations. By the Muslim conquest, Acre was considered as the naval base under the Umayyads and Abbásids. With the rise of the Tulunids, the path to Acre's progress was levelled, so that during the Fatimid period, Acre was able to regain its commercial role. During the Crusades, Acre appeared successful, and even turned the Tyre down, replaced it with four commercial networks. In this descriptive-analytical study, we seek to examine the commercial position of the port of Acre during the Crusades and to seek historical evidences of its flourishing and declining causes. The results show that the port of Acre was able to gain a significant foothold on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean at the beginning of this century, but with the Mongol invasion of the Levant and the change of trade routes, the Acre port declined .

Historical Sciences Studies, 2020

Mahdism has been one of the important and fundamental issues in the Islamic period of Iran. This ... more Mahdism has been one of the important and fundamental issues in the Islamic period of Iran. This issue has suffered much from problems such as false Mahdis and this has caused problems for the Islamic community. These problems have continued to concern the community to the present. Seyed Mohammad Kelardashti was one of these Mahdis. He made his claim public in Kelardasht in 1892 and assembled a group of people. The most important questions addressed in this study are what the background of his claim was, what the current government did to confront him, and what consequences he faced. It seems that the background of his claim was the gap between the people of Khajeh Vand tribe with each other, with Kelardasht inhabitants, and even with the government. Although this rebellion was suppressed and he was arrested and imprisoned, he was released from prison after a while and was assigned a pension. The present study attempts to investigate this issue based on the documents of the National Library and Archives of the Islamic Republic of Iran

Historical Sciences Studies, 2020

Due to geographical, climatic, and natural conditions, the Persian Gulf trade has been lively in ... more Due to geographical, climatic, and natural conditions, the Persian Gulf trade has been lively in all historical periods. But the lack of complete and reliable statistics before Naser al-Din Shah Qajar's period (1831-1896) makes it difficult to speculate about the position of the Persian Gulf ports in southern-Iran trade. The data of the British-Indian Government administrative offices registered during Naser al-Din Shah Qajar's period provides an opportunity to study the details of the Persian Gulf trade ports. Surely such statistics can help us examine the factors affecting the trade of Southern-Iran. The factors mentioned in Persian sources are natural events. Considering that Persian sources have a brief discussion of natural events, we can only understand the magnitude and extent of the effects of natural events through the political reports and the reports of secret reporters in the south. The information of administrative offices makes it possible to explore the impact of natural events on the Southern-Iran trade. Accordingly, the present study tries to investigate the effects of natural factors on the trading of Iranian ports in the Persian Gulf on the basis of these statistic reports. It tries to provide a qualitative analysis of the effects of natural events on imports and exports of southern Iran. It shows that natural events, especially wheat prices, had a significant impact on the trade of southern Iran.

Historical Sciences Studies, 2020

The Safavid government, like many other monarchies in the history of Iran, had a bureaucratic and... more The Safavid government, like many other monarchies in the history of Iran, had a bureaucratic and patrimonial structure. Although such a political system appears at first glance to be an absolute monarchy in which all decisions are made by the head of the hierarchy of political power, because of the existence of bureaucracy there was an opportunity of forming assemblies of advisers. In fact, besides the seeming role of the ruling king in making all decisions, there were some decision-making institutions in between the internal layers of the monarchy. These institutions finalized and then issued decisions in the form of the king’s orders or other high-level seniors’ instructions. Considering the frequent use of the term “Majles-e Behesht-Ayin” (The Royal Assembly of the Safavid Senior Officials) in historical texts of the Safavid Era, which mostly refers to the consultation gatherings in the Safavid royal court, there seems to be evidence for the existence of a royal assembly in such gatherings. Therefore, this research aims at proving the existence of a royal assembly of the Safavid senior officials and illustrating a clear image of its status and functions in the decision-making system of the Safavid royal court.

Historical Sciences Studies, 2020

The city of Vladikavkaz, founded during the expansion of the Russian Empire to the Caucasus in th... more The city of Vladikavkaz, founded during the expansion of the Russian Empire to the Caucasus in the late eighteenth century, gradually attracted immigrants from inside and outside the empire. This city, especially since the second half of the nineteenth century, became one of the destinations for permanent and temporary migrations from Persia. With the increase of the Iranian population in Vladikavkaz and the surrounding areas, the Iranian consulate was established there in 1897. The aim of this study is to provide a general overview of the activities of Iranian officials and immigrants in Vladikavkaz since the establishment of the Iranian consulate in 1897 until the collapse of the Tsarist Empire and the outbreak of civil war in Russia based on the consular records in the archive of Iran’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Through its efforts to establish and maintain a Shia mosque, Nowruz School, and Hemmat Association, the Iranian consulate played an important role in supporting solidarity among the Iranian diaspora in the city and protecting the rights of the Iranian citizens. However, the affairs with the Russian Empire, hostility and rivalry inside the Iranian Foreign Ministry, and financial problems were the main challenges faced by the Persian consul in Vladikavkaz.

Historical Sciences Studies, 2020

The poetic and mystical aspects of Rumi’s Masnavi are very striking, but, as in other texts, the ... more The poetic and mystical aspects of Rumi’s Masnavi are very striking, but, as in other texts, the influence of the poet’s historical era is detectible so that it reflects the social realities of its period. Therefore, Masnavi could also be considered as historical evidence that may be used by contemporary historians as a source of information about the time of the poet. “Tabriz’s Muhtasib” is a poem in Masnavi that apparently reveals some of the poet’s viewpoints on his time. This research argues that the changes in the character Muhtasib and in the location of the story correspond with the abolition of the establishment of Hisbah and the election of Tabriz as the capital of the Ilkhanate Empire on the one hand and the importance of Omar, the second caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate, in Hisbah affairs and Rumi’s interest in him on the other. These events influenced Rumi’s recreation of this ancient story and caused it to contain historical connotations.

Historical Sciences Studies, 2020

Revision of the genealogy and chronology of the Arsacid dynasty has been the pivot of Farhad Assa... more Revision of the genealogy and chronology of the Arsacid dynasty has been the pivot of Farhad Assar’s studies in recent years. Simonetta, who finds errors in Assar’s schema, has himself ignored several key numismatic parameters and his proposed chronology is, thus, in contrast with the widely accepted Sellwood-Mørkholm schema. Sellwood and Mørkholm had already established a meticulous chronology of the drachms and tetradrachms of the “Dark Age” of the Arsacid. Although their schema has some minor defections, it rarely contradicts the extant documents from the Dark Age. This research compares the proposed schemas of Simonetta and Assar to determine which one is reliable. The results reveal inconsistencies between Simonetta’s ideas and the extant historical and numismatic documents. Furthermore, Simonetta ignores the political circumstances of the first months of the reign of Orodes I. Assar’s proposed chronology of the coins agrees well with extant documents from the Dark Age. Simonetta’s conclusions, however, should be used with caution and those who are willing to adopt them in further studies should ensure their reliability.

Historical Sciences Studies, 2020

Onomastics (or onomatology) refers to the study of proper names of any kind including the names o... more Onomastics (or onomatology) refers to the study of proper names of any kind including the names of people (anthroponyms) and places (toponyms). The purpose of this article is to explain different aspects of onomastics and its related knowledge, as well as its necessity and importance. Scrutinizing onomastics research background and the status of this knowledge in scientific studies of Iran is the other purpose of this article. Since names change with geography, language, religion, and time, studying the process of these changes at different historical periods and geographical areas can answer many questions. In fact, the importance of Onomastics is its secondary functions, such as cultural, social, political, and historical ones, which can have important results. For instance, it can determine the reasons for the changes in the names of people and places in different historical periods as well as the extent of the influence of different languages ​​in a particular geographical area. It is important to consider that onomastics in Iran requires further research in various branches; because most of the studies on names are devoted to the contemporary period and the names before this period have been given less attention.

Historical Sciences Studies, 2020

There were few governments in ancient Iran that were completely protected from political turmoil ... more There were few governments in ancient Iran that were completely protected from political turmoil and instability. The studies on the history of the Achaemenid Empire two centuries after the death of Cyrus the Great indicate that they faced many revolts and rebellions. When the Egyptians were informed of the death of Xerxes and the conflict that had arisen over his replacement, they decided to fight for their independence. Therefore, they immediately provided an army and from 460 to 454 BCE they rebelled against the Persians. The purpose of the present study is to examine the process of Egyptians’ insurrection during the reign of Artaxerxes I and to identify the factors that were effective in creating stability/instability or convergence/ divergence in the Egyptian territory under the rule of the Achaemenid. The results of the article indicate that in the satrapy of Egypt, there was an instability in the established political power and a temporary change of the positions of the politicians.

Historical Sciences Studies, 2020

In the final years of the First World War, the Jungle Movement went into a battle against the Eng... more In the final years of the First World War, the Jungle Movement went into a battle against the English troops resulted from the military changes of the Caucasian region. The English troops needed a quick passage to the Caucasus through Gilan, but the Jungle Movement prevented them and this culminated in a battle. This battle is one of the most important events in the history of the movement and it had a strong effect on its destiny. Hence, the study and analysis of it, particularly thetactics adopted by the movement and their effects, is very important. Therefore, the main goal of this article is to answer the questions as to what tactics the movement employed in the battle against the English and what the results of these tactics were for the movement. In general, four tactics are distinguished in this battle: regular warfare, partisan warfare, urban warfare, and peace. The analysis of the quality of these tactics demonstrates that, except for the partisan warfare, other tactics had negative results for the movement.

Historical Sciences Studies, 2020

The conflict between reason and religion in the Iranian medieval history is an issue affected by ... more The conflict between reason and religion in the Iranian medieval history is an issue affected by the scientific sources of Muslims from the early centuries of the Islamic Era. Regardless of their commonalities, reason and religion are generally known to be opposing forces, as the observance of one undermines the other. Rational knowledge and religious science have each been either declining or growing depending on the historical circumstances. Ever since the emergence of Islam and through the course of its solidification, intellectuality, too, underwent an evolutionary process. Such evolution, however, can be interpreted neither as concordance or compromise between reason and religion, nor as absolute disagreement. Rather, it is a course towards supremacy resulting from the historical circumstances. The eleventh and twelfth centuries witnessed continuous conflicts between religion and intellect, as it is reflected in Ghazali’s books and Averroes’s rebuttals to them. Regardless of the abstract issues involved, the conflicts between Averroes and Ghazali provide an in-depth understanding of the historical context of intellect and Sharia in the course of the Islamic history. This confrontation is in fact the result of the development of rationality and the socio-political circumstances.

Historical Sciences Studies, 2020

The title Cannoneer (Tūpchibāshi) became widespread with the increasing use of firearms since the... more The title Cannoneer (Tūpchibāshi) became widespread with the increasing use of firearms since the early Safavid Era. According to the first references to this position during the reign of Shah Tahmasb I, a cannoneer was a skilled professional who was able to both cast (TūpRizi) and fire (TūpAndāzi) cannons. Since cannons were essentially in the hands of the central government, cannoneers soon became important people in the court. With the military reforms of Shah Abbas I, Cannoneer, maintaining the two aforementioned responsibilities, entered the military hierarchy and became one of the leaders of the army. After the two important wars of Yerevan (1635) and Qandahar (1648), both of which were won by means of the artillery, the standing of the artillery improved so that the office of cannoneer and the artillery unit were officially created in 1654. Since then, until the end of the Safavid Era, a cannoneer was a military official who commanded the artillery in war. Thus, Cannoneer and three other offices, namely Qurchibāshi (Commander of the Royal Bodyguards), Qullar Āghāsi (Commander of the Royal Slaves), and Tofangchi Āghāsi (Commander of the Royal Musketeers), became the four pillars of the Safavid army. This paper studies the emergence of Cannoneer in the army of the Safavid dynasty to clarify its position and tasks in the military ranks of that era.

Historical Sciences Studies, 2020

Sasanians’ converting to Zoroastrianism and their relations with Zoroastrian clerics have been im... more Sasanians’ converting to Zoroastrianism and their relations with Zoroastrian clerics have been important issues of the history studies on the Sasanians. In the past one and a half century, a number of scholars, referring to a report on Sasan by Tabari, the eponymous ancestor of the Sasanians, have assumed religious office such as mobed, hērbed, or the guardian of the fire temple for him, and have taken it as evidence for the Sasanians’ presumed priestly lineage. Some have even considered the success of the Sasanians in overcoming the Arsacid Empire as an outcome of their new religious tendency. In addition, Agathias’s report on Ardashir I, the founder of the Sasanian dynasty, has also been used by some scholars as another piece of evidence to suppose a clerical rank for him. Reexamining Tabari’s report and evaluating it in the context of the Zoroastrian legal system, this study demonstrates that Sasan’s office in Anahit’s fire temple was not a priestly one, and Agathias’s report on Ardashir has nothing to do with priestly ranks. To the contrary, these reports, when considered together with all other evidence, confirm Sasanians’ connection with the local nobility of Fars region.

Historical Sciences Studies, 2020

Scholars, in their study of Parthian numismatics, mostly emphasize the Hellenistic and Persian-Ac... more Scholars, in their study of Parthian numismatics, mostly emphasize the Hellenistic and Persian-Achaemenid heritage and ignore Scythian cultural elements. One of the most important motifs on these coins is the upright headgear of the king. The main purpose of this research is to examine the origin of early Arsacid kings’ headgear which is generally assumed to be an imitation of Achaemenid satrapal coins and Persian culture. Due to the Scythian background of the Arsacids, however, the article proposes a Scythian origin for this headgear. It examines the origin of this headgear by comparing Arsacid coins with Achaemenid, Scythian, and Greek motifs and classical sources. The result of our comparison indicates that the Arsacid headgear, unlike the soft and loose Persian one, has a striking resemblance with the stiff pointed Scythian headgear which is depicted in Achaemenid and Greek art. Consequently, it can be argued that the early Arsacid headgear was probably a sort of Scythian headgear belonging to Aparni or Dahaean tribes. The trace of this headgear can be found in some classical texts in which it is refered to as “kurbasia.” The study of the terms used for headgears in these texts illustrates that the word kurbasia, which was initially used for the Scythian headgear, in later periods, was confused with an upright ridged Persian headgear exclusively for the Achaemenid great king. Apart from their similar stiffness, it seems that both headgears had a common neck protection which further caused their misidentification.

Historical Sciences Studies, 2020

The Great Game of Russia and Britain, which began in the early nineteenth century, led to the con... more The Great Game of Russia and Britain, which began in the early nineteenth century, led to the confrontation of the two powers in Iran until the early twentieth century. The Russian-British rivalry in Iran intensified after the second round of Iran-Russia wars in the Caucasus, when the restoration of Iran’s historical rule over Herat was on the agenda of the Iranian government, resulting in the siege of Herat in 1837, an incident that caused British politicians to worry about Russia’s expansion in the western borders of India. The findings of this study indicate that the idea of ​​capturing Herat was partly influenced by Russians’ support to divert the Iranian government’s attention from the Caucasus. In addition, with the Herat crisis and Britain’s concern about the expansion of Russia’s influence on the borders of India, the creation of a buffer state became vital in the framework of India’s defense strategy. Under the circumstances that Russians were supporting the Iranian court during the siege of Herat, Palmerston’s regional and extra-regional aggressive policy, followed by Russians’ passive stance, led to the rapid deployment of force to the Persian Gulf and ended the campaign in Herat in favor of Britain. Afterwards, Britain stabilized its position in today’s Afghanistan. Contrary to other studies that mostly examine the issue of Herat in the framework of Iran’s relations with Britain, Russia, or the Emirate of Afghanistan, this article examines the issue of Herat’s siege in the context of the Great Game.

Historical Sciences Studies, 2020

برای فهم بهتر اهمیت دیدگاه­های علمی استاد دکتر احسان اشراقی ضرورت دارد به وضع تاریخ و تاریخ­نگاری... more برای فهم بهتر اهمیت دیدگاه­های علمی استاد دکتر احسان اشراقی ضرورت دارد به وضع تاریخ و تاریخ­نگاری در دورۀ معاصر ایران توجه شود. در یک دسته‌بندی بزرگ، تاریخ­نگاری ایرانی را می­توان در دو بخش از آغاز دورۀ اسلامی تا مشروطیت و از دورۀ مشروطه به بعد بررسی کرد. در هریک از این دوره­ها فعالیت مورخان ایرانی ویژگی­هایی داشته که در عین تداوم سنت، تغییراتی نیز یافته است. این تغییرات در آستانة مشروطیت و پس از آن، همه‌جانبه­تر و پرشتاب­تر بوده است. تغییراتی که در دورة دوم ایجاد شد، دستاورد مهم دورۀ تجدد جامعۀ ایرانی بود و لذا به‌نظرمی­آید بررسی کوشش­های مورخانه و آثار و پژوهش­های دکتر اشراقی برای درک تأثیر تغییرات ناشی از تجدد ضروری است؛ به سخن دیگر، آن دسته از تغییراتی که تاریخ را از دانشی مبتنی بر قواعد و اسلوب قدیم پیش از تجدد، به آستانۀ یک رشتۀ تخصصی و مبتنی بر معیارهای علوم نوین تبدیل کرد.

Historical Sciences Studies, 2019

The inscriptions of Derbent, a city in Dagestan, Caucasus, are among the most important Sassanid ... more The inscriptions of Derbent, a city in Dagestan, Caucasus, are among the most important Sassanid inscriptions. They have been inscribed on the defensive wall of Derbent. Derbent's defense fortifications consist of walls that were built to defend against the invasion of nomadic tribes, usually located on the upper borderlands of the Sassanid Caucasus. The construction of defensive walls, promotion of their quality and strength, and the maintenance and restoration of these fortifications have been the main and primary tasks of Sassanid rulers against the invasion of these tribes. The construction phases of Derbent's defensive wall and its dating have been controversial among the researchers of this field. There are some inscriptions, in some parts of this wall, inscribed by the language of Sassanid Pahlavi. Of the 32 inscriptions on the Derbent's wall, the 3rd one has a historical significance due to a number that seems referring to a year with an unknown epoch. A variety of theories have been proposed about the reading of the number as well as its possible epoch. By reviewing some of these theories, it has been concluded that the mentioned number means the year 37. Considering the historical evidences, presented in the text of this paper, and based on our information about the king calendar of the Sassanians that its epoch was the year a Sassanid king sat on the throne, it can be guessed that the calendar epoch of the year 37, mentioned in the inscription, points the year Khosrow I crowned as the king. It can be claimed, accepting the suggestion, that the time for inscribing this historic record was the 37th anniversary of Khosrow Anushirvan's reign which coincides with 568-569 AD.