Shlomo Bunimovitz | Tel Aviv University (original) (raw)
Books by Shlomo Bunimovitz
Located at the geographical meeting point of three cultural entities –Canaanites, Philistines, an... more Located at the geographical meeting point of three cultural entities –Canaanites, Philistines, and Israelites – Tel Beth-Shemesh is an ideal site for investigating geopolitical, social, and cultural dynamics at a border zone. Applying the interpretive methods of anthropology and archaeology of borders, the renewed excavations at Tel Beth-Shemesh, initiated by Shlomo Bunimovitz and Zvi Lederman in 1990, provide novel insights – "a view from the border" - about major topics in the Iron Age archaeology of the southern Levant. They also allow comprehensive reevaluation of the two early excavation cycles at the site conducted by Duncan Mackenzie (1911-1912) and Elihu Grant (1928-1933). The results of the first decade of the renewed excavations are presented contextually under four main themes: the Iron I peasant community on the Philistine border; the Iron IIA transformation of the site into a state administrative center characterized by monumental architectural enterprises; the Iron IIB olive-oil producing town; and a previously unknown short and unsuccessful attempt to resettle the site in the twilight of Assyrian domination in the southern Levant.
In 1909 the Scottish archaeologist Duncan Mackenzie, Sir Arthur Evans’s right-hand man on the exc... more In 1909 the Scottish archaeologist Duncan Mackenzie, Sir Arthur Evans’s right-hand man on the excavations of the legendary ‘Palace of Minos’ at Knossos since 1900, was appointed ‘Explorer’ of the Palestine Exploration Fund (PEF). From the spring of 1910 until December 1912 he was engaged in archaeological fieldwork in Palestine, especially directing excavation campaigns at Ain Shems (biblical Beth Shemesh) – an important site in the Shephelah of Judah at the crossroads of Canaanite, Philistine, and Israelite cultures. Mackenzie published the results of his work in various issues of the Palestine Exploration Quarterly and Palestine Exploration Fund Annual. Because of a financial dispute with the PEF, however, he never submitted a detailed publication of his very last campaign at Beth Shemesh, conducted in November-December 1912.
In 1992 Nicoletta Momigliano rediscovered Mackenzie’s lost manuscript on his latest discoveries at Beth Shemesh, which one of his nephews had kept for nearly 80 years at his old family home in the Scottish Highlands, in the small village of Muir of Ord. At about the same time, Shlomo Bunimovitz and Zvi Lederman initiated new excavations at Beth Shemesh which considerably changed previous interpretations of the site. This volume presents Mackenzie’s detailed discussion of his last excavations at Beth Shemesh in the light of these more recent discoveries. Although written over a century ago, Mackenzie’s manuscript deserves to be better known today; it not only provides significant new information on this important site but also constitutes an intriguing historical document, shedding light on the history of field archaeology and of biblical archaeology. Moreover, Mackenzie’s pioneering approach to archaeological fieldwork and the significance of his finds can often be better appreciated today, from the perspective of more recent developments and discoveries.
Papers by Shlomo Bunimovitz
The Base Ring juglets of Late Bronze Age Cyprus have long been associated with opium due to their... more The Base Ring juglets of Late Bronze Age Cyprus have long been associated with opium due to their hypothetical resemblance to inverted poppy heads. Analysis of organic residues on Base Ring juglets from Cyprus and Israel, however, showed no trace of opium; instead, the vessels had contained a variety of perfumed oils. The analytical results are supported by textual evidence attesting to a lively trade across the eastern Mediterranean in aromatic substances and compounds, rather than in opium. The poppy-head shape of the Base Ring juglets was not a reference to their contents.
Recent studies in the southern Levant have clarified that bronze – the commonly used metal during... more Recent studies in the southern Levant have clarified that bronze – the commonly used metal during the Middle and Late Bronze Ages – continued to be produced throughout the entire Iron Age I. In order to gain more information concerning the metallurgical industry in southern Canaan during the Late Bronze–Iron Age transition, we performed an archaeometallurgical study of three well-preserved bronze objects – a 13th century BCE axe and 12th century BCE hoe and handle – discovered in the renewed excavations at Tel Beth-Shemesh, Israel. Analyzing the composition, microstructure and microhardness of the objects, the study aims at reconstructing their manufacturing processes. The chemical analysis revealed that the three objects were made of bronze, with up to 6.2 wt% Sn and up to 4.0 wt% Pb. Giving their properties and shape, the objects were first cast, most likely in an open mould and then brought to the desired final size and shape probably through cold-forging and annealing cycles. The results of the present research contribute to the accumulating knowledge concerning the Canaanite metallurgical industry during the Late Bronze II–Iron Age I transition.
The Cambridge Prehistory of the Bronze and Iron Age Mediterranean, 2014
The early Iron Age (twelfth–eleventh centuries BC) in the southern Levant (Israel/Palestine) saw ... more The early Iron Age (twelfth–eleventh centuries BC) in the southern Levant (Israel/Palestine) saw the disintegration of Egyptian imperial control and of the Canaanite city-state system that had characterized the region in the Late Bronze Age. New social and cultural groups – Philistines and Israelites – appeared on the historical stage. Recent archaeological research has added much new data about both groups, yet has also questioned (rightly or wrongly) traditional paradigms concerning their emergence in the land. When critically examined, it becomes clear that Philistine and Israelite identities are dialectically related. A variety of processes visible in the archaeological record – migration, interaction, border encounters, and separation – led to ethnic negotiation and demarcation. Moreover the Canaanite population, the substratum upon which the new group identities were built, played a neglected yet highly important role in the processes of ethnogenesis that took place in the region during the early Iron Age.
Over half a century ago Robert Merrillees raised a brilliant hypothesis according to which Late C... more Over half a century ago Robert Merrillees raised a brilliant hypothesis according to which Late Cypriot Base Ring juglets, supposedly shaped like inverted poppy seed pod to advertise their contents, traded opium over the Eastern Mediterranean. This most appealing idea was enthusiastically embraced by students of the Ancient Near East, in spite of the meager scientific evidence supporting it. In order to provide new insights to this intriguing issue four Base Ring I juglets recently found in a secured Late Bronze IIA (14th century BCE) context at Tel Beth-Shemesh, Israel, were submitted for residue analysis at the University of New York at Albany. No traces of opium were found in these juglets. Analysis of 14 additional Base Ring juglets and jugs from Cyprus yielded similar results. Rather, the juglets from Beth-Shemesh contained aromatic oils which could be used externally or consumed for their medicinal benefits. It seems that the one and only positive case as yet of a Base Ring juglet containing opium (from an unprovenanced origin, probably reused) is an exception that proves the rule – Base Ring juglets mainly carried non-narcotic substances.
Palestine Exploration Quarterly, 2013
ABSTRACT At Ain Shems (Beth-Shemesh) in 1911–1912, Duncan Mackenzie exposed a massive city wall a... more ABSTRACT At Ain Shems (Beth-Shemesh) in 1911–1912, Duncan Mackenzie exposed a massive city wall and its ‘South Gate’. Mackenzie published only a schematic plan of the gate, which he dated back to the ‘Canaanite period’, and covered it at the end of his work. The gate comprises one of the finest examples of Middle Bronze city gates known from the Land of Israel, yet its asymmetrical plan and final date of use remained a puzzle for almost a century. Combining archaeological clues on the ground with a study of Mackenzie's unpublished documents in the PEF archive, the authors' renewed excavations at Tel Beth-Shemesh, located the hidden ‘South Gate’ and exposed it anew. The new excavation revealed unknown details about the gate's plan and determined Late Bronze IIA as the terminus ad quem for its function as a gate. A reassessment of the ‘South Gate’ architecture, roofing, and system of closure provides new insights concerning its daily functioning, and raises doubts about the conventional uniform reconstruction of known MB gates. The role of Beth-Shemesh as a fortified MBIIB-C city in the northern Shephelah is discussed vis-à-vis its neighbouring sites: Tel Batash, Tel Miqne, and Gezer.
The Annual of the British School at Athens, 2013
A medium-size Amenhotep III scarab recently discovered in the excavations at Tel Beth-Shemesh, Is... more A medium-size Amenhotep III scarab recently discovered in the excavations at Tel Beth-Shemesh, Israel, together with two decorated Late Minoan IIIA1 cups enables a fresh look at the synchronism between Late Minoan IIIA1 and Amenhotep III. The scarab is identified as commemorative, produced on the occasion of Amenhotep III’s first Jubilee or Sed festival.
In light of this interpretation a new examination of the renowned and debated Amenhotep III scarab from Sellopoulo Tomb 4 is presented. It is proposed here to identify this scarab also as commemorative as it includes, in addition to the pharaoh’s prenomen, an epithet which relates it too to Amenhotep III’s first Sed festival.
Both scarabs, from Beth-Shemesh and Sellopoulo, are shown to have been produced between Amenhotep III’s Regnal Years 28/25 and 34 respectively – most probably around Regnal Year 28 – and presumably reached their destination about that time. Further analysis led to the conclusion that the envisioned Egyptian embassy to the Aegean, which may have been the source for the ‘Aegean List’ of Kom el-Hetan, took place also during Amenhotep III’s Regnal Year 28.
The two culturally different and geographically remote contexts in which the Beth-Shemesh and Sellopoulo scarabs were found – a destruction layer in Canaan and a tomb in Crete – tell the same story: Late Minoan IIIA1 was in vogue at least until the last decade of Amenhotep III’s reign in the mid-fourteenth century BC. This conclusion has important implications for the political and cultural history of Knossos and may anchor the sequence of events of the Final Palatial period in a more solid chronological framework.
Beth-Shemesh in the early 20th century, a scholarly myth about Philistine domination at the site ... more Beth-Shemesh in the early 20th century, a scholarly myth about Philistine domination at the site during Iron Age I was born. Renewed excavations at Beth-Shemesh by the authors dispelled this unfounded hypothesis. In a sequence of Iron I levels, Canaanite cultural traditions are dominant. Only a meager amount of Bichrome Philistine pottery was found, and other items of Philistine affiliation are missing. Furthermore, pork consumption was completely avoided at Beth-Shemesh in contrast with adjacent Philistine sites. Review of geopolitical changes in the Shephelah during the Late Bronze-Iron Age transition indicates that the Canaanite inhabitants of Beth-Shemesh took advantage of their location at the Philistine periphery and resisted Philistine hegemony. By denying foodways (eating and drinking) that symbolized their new aggressive neighbors, the people of Beth-Shemesh culturally identified themselves as "non-Philistine." But since an inverse process, by which elements of Philistine culture were adopted by Canaanites living within the Philistine territory, is also evident, it is apparent that whether adopting or denying Philistine cultural elements, the indigenous population of the Shephelah changed its previous way of life during Iron Age I.
Two adjoining fragments of a storage jar bearing an archaic alphabetic inscription were found dur... more Two adjoining fragments of a storage jar bearing an archaic alphabetic inscription were found during the renewed excavations at Tel Beth-Shemesh. Analysis indicates that, though found in separate contexts, the two sherds derived from a common source of predominately late Bronze ii and early iron i materials. A date of 1150–1100 BCe for the provenance of the inscription is most likely. The inscription consists of six or seven alphabetic signs incised on the jar before firing. Though only the word or name element b>l is unequivocally recognizable, the original inscription seems to have included a statement of ownership and an indication of the contents of the vessel. A paleographical analysis of the letter signs shows the writing to be characteristic of the mid-12th century BCe or slightly earlier and a date of ca. 1150 BCe, in accordance with its archaeological context, is entirely plausible. The use of the divine name Ba>l may hint at the cultural background of the iron Age i population of Beth-Shemesh. Two adjoining potsherds bearing a single archaic alphabetic inscription were found in 2001 during the 11th excavation season at Tel Beth-Shemesh (Fig. 1). The two sherds were recovered separately from different depositional layers of the same stratigraphical context (Level 4) within the same excavation square (T47) in Area E on the southern part of the mound (for map and comprehensive summary of the renewed excavations at the site, see Bunimovitz and Lederman 2009). The smaller sherd is trapezoidal in shape and bears two complete letter signs and a fragment of a third; the larger sherd is rectangular and bears four complete signs (Table 1). The join between the two sherds was recognized by the excavators during artefact analysis after the conclusion of the 2001 season. Thus the entire extant inscription, which is presumably incomplete, consists of seven letter signs—six complete and one fragmentary. The signs had been incised on the body of a
For over a century, the archaeology of the Land of Israel went hand in hand with the Bible. Bibli... more For over a century, the archaeology of the Land of Israel went hand in hand with the Bible. Biblical Archaeology, the outcome of this interaction, has been normally conceived as the handmaiden of the biblical texts, authenticating and illustrating them. Whether motivated by theological or secular agenda, the main tenet of Biblical Archaeology was political history. In spite of recent claims for the emancipation of archaeology from the tyranny of the biblical texts, the archaeological agenda is still biblical, pursuing questions related to biblical historiography. Paradoxically, however, due to its problematic nature, the use of the Bible in archaeological discourse is considered today almost illegitimate.
We envision a different integration between archaeology and the Bible. On the one hand, an archaeological agenda, independent of the biblical text, will open a much wider range of social and cultural questions. On the other, using the Bible as a cultural document to answer these questions will restore its central place in the archaeological discourse of the biblical period. Conceiving of both biblical texts and ancient material artifacts as cultural documents, we believe that their inspection will be fruitful and enlightening. Words and artifacts can give us access to the mindset of the people of the biblical period. Encapsulated in both are the worldviews, cosmology, perceptions of landscape, ideology, symbolism, etc. of the people who produced them. The insights gained by this approach will eventually result in a better understanding of biblical political history.
International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 2013
We present a zooarchaeological analysis of the faunal remains at Tel Beth-Shemesh, a site located... more We present a zooarchaeological analysis of the faunal remains at Tel Beth-Shemesh, a site located in the Shephelah region of Israel, which has been dated to the Late Bronze Age and Iron Age I. The site, identified as the biblical city of Beth-Shemesh, was a Canaanite border town between Philistine and Israelite settlements and of great importance in our attempts to understand the social and cultural transformations that occurred in the southern Levant during those periods. This study contributes to a more accurate understanding of the cultural identity of the site's inhabitants by exploring the cultural differences between populations as reflected in their different dietary preferences. We analysed the subsistence economy at the site, the general exploitation patterns, herd management strategies and consumption practices, all of which are based mostly on domestic livestock. We determined the cultural identity at the site mainly by comparing the representation of pig remains with that found at other sites in the region, and offer various explanations for the differences. The comparisons revealed clear differences between Tel Beth-Shemesh and other known nearby Philistine sites. This site appears to have possessed a self-contained production and consumption economy with similarities in the general pattern of animal exploitation between the two periods. These similarities constitute evidence for the continuation of the local population and of its culture at the site during the period of turmoil that swept the region during the transition to the Iron Age.
ABSTRACT: In the 14th (2005) season of the renewed excavations at Tel Beth-Shemesh, a small Phili... more ABSTRACT: In the 14th (2005) season of the renewed excavations at Tel Beth-Shemesh, a small Philistine bell-shaped bowl with a unique fish motif depicted inside was discovered in an Iron I context (Level 6). Investigation of the motif — an ‘X-rayed’ fish—showed that it differs conspicuously from other Philistine fish images and that it drew its inspiration from Mycenaean pictorial pottery. The Beth-Shemesh fish is, however, unique in its artistic attributes and placement.
This is a detailed and updated discussion of the Iron Age four room house (repeating some of the ... more This is a detailed and updated discussion of the Iron Age four room house (repeating some of the ideas expressed in previous articles, and also expanding and exploring new issues).
The article does not have an abstract, and below are the opening paragraphs of the paper:
"Houses serve not only as shelters from the elements. Since they accommodate families of various types, sizes and social configurations, they embody a variety of social and cognitive aspects (e.g., Oliver 1987; Waterson 1990). The built environment allows for certain types of social activities and interaction, and therefore structure the inhabitants perceptions. As Winston Churchill once said, “we shape our buildings; thereafter they shape us.”
This clearly seems to be the case in Iron Age Israel. In this period a house of a very rigid plan became very dominant, and this rigidity in itself might hint at its social importance. The social significance of the house as a social unit is also exemplified by the language – the word for "house" (bayit) is also used to designate a "family", and even larger kinship units; at times this word reflected the entire kingdom (for the usages of the term, see Schloen 2001; with connection to the four-room house, see Faust and Bunimovitz 2008: 161-2, and references).
In this article we intend to discuss the Iron Age dwelling – the famous four-room house – and to show that it was a microcosmos of the Israelite world. This structure can serve, therefore, as a window into all aspects of Israelite society, from family structure, through wealth, to ethnicity, cosmology, perceptions of space, and even notions of social justice."
To download the article, go to:
http://lisa.biu.ac.il/files/lisa/shared/135-_faust-bunimovitz-2014-in_household_religion-four_room_houses.pdf
Copyright © 2014 by Eisenbrauns; the article is placed at my BIU webpage by permission of the publisher. The book may be purchased here: http://www.eisenbrauns.com/item/ALBHOUSEH
For over a century, the archaeology of the Land of Israel went hand in hand with the Bible. Bibli... more For over a century, the archaeology of the Land of Israel went hand in hand with the Bible. Biblical archaeology, the outcome of this interaction, has been normally conceived as the handmaiden of the biblical texts, authenticating and illustrating them. Whether motivated by theological or secular agenda, the main tenet of biblical archaeology was political history. In spite of recent claims for the emancipation of archaeology from the tyranny of the biblical texts, the archaeological agenda is still biblical, pursuing questions related to biblical historiography. Paradoxically, however, due to its problematic nature, the use of the Bible in archaeological discourse is considered today almost illegitimate.
We envision a different integration between archaeology and the Bible. On the one hand, an archaeological agenda, independent of the biblical text, will open a much wider range of social and cultural questions. On the other hand, using the Bible as a cultural document to answer these questions will restore its central place in the archaeological discourse of the biblical period. Conceiving of both biblical texts and ancient material artifacts as cultural documents, we believe that their inspection will be fruitful and enlightening. Words and artifacts can give us access to the mindset of the people of the biblical period. Encapsulated in both are the worldviews, cosmology, perceptions of landscape, ideology, symbolism, etc. of the people who produced them. The insights gained by this approach will eventually result in a better understanding of biblical political history.
Located at the geographical meeting point of three cultural entities –Canaanites, Philistines, an... more Located at the geographical meeting point of three cultural entities –Canaanites, Philistines, and Israelites – Tel Beth-Shemesh is an ideal site for investigating geopolitical, social, and cultural dynamics at a border zone. Applying the interpretive methods of anthropology and archaeology of borders, the renewed excavations at Tel Beth-Shemesh, initiated by Shlomo Bunimovitz and Zvi Lederman in 1990, provide novel insights – "a view from the border" - about major topics in the Iron Age archaeology of the southern Levant. They also allow comprehensive reevaluation of the two early excavation cycles at the site conducted by Duncan Mackenzie (1911-1912) and Elihu Grant (1928-1933). The results of the first decade of the renewed excavations are presented contextually under four main themes: the Iron I peasant community on the Philistine border; the Iron IIA transformation of the site into a state administrative center characterized by monumental architectural enterprises; the Iron IIB olive-oil producing town; and a previously unknown short and unsuccessful attempt to resettle the site in the twilight of Assyrian domination in the southern Levant.
In 1909 the Scottish archaeologist Duncan Mackenzie, Sir Arthur Evans’s right-hand man on the exc... more In 1909 the Scottish archaeologist Duncan Mackenzie, Sir Arthur Evans’s right-hand man on the excavations of the legendary ‘Palace of Minos’ at Knossos since 1900, was appointed ‘Explorer’ of the Palestine Exploration Fund (PEF). From the spring of 1910 until December 1912 he was engaged in archaeological fieldwork in Palestine, especially directing excavation campaigns at Ain Shems (biblical Beth Shemesh) – an important site in the Shephelah of Judah at the crossroads of Canaanite, Philistine, and Israelite cultures. Mackenzie published the results of his work in various issues of the Palestine Exploration Quarterly and Palestine Exploration Fund Annual. Because of a financial dispute with the PEF, however, he never submitted a detailed publication of his very last campaign at Beth Shemesh, conducted in November-December 1912.
In 1992 Nicoletta Momigliano rediscovered Mackenzie’s lost manuscript on his latest discoveries at Beth Shemesh, which one of his nephews had kept for nearly 80 years at his old family home in the Scottish Highlands, in the small village of Muir of Ord. At about the same time, Shlomo Bunimovitz and Zvi Lederman initiated new excavations at Beth Shemesh which considerably changed previous interpretations of the site. This volume presents Mackenzie’s detailed discussion of his last excavations at Beth Shemesh in the light of these more recent discoveries. Although written over a century ago, Mackenzie’s manuscript deserves to be better known today; it not only provides significant new information on this important site but also constitutes an intriguing historical document, shedding light on the history of field archaeology and of biblical archaeology. Moreover, Mackenzie’s pioneering approach to archaeological fieldwork and the significance of his finds can often be better appreciated today, from the perspective of more recent developments and discoveries.
The Base Ring juglets of Late Bronze Age Cyprus have long been associated with opium due to their... more The Base Ring juglets of Late Bronze Age Cyprus have long been associated with opium due to their hypothetical resemblance to inverted poppy heads. Analysis of organic residues on Base Ring juglets from Cyprus and Israel, however, showed no trace of opium; instead, the vessels had contained a variety of perfumed oils. The analytical results are supported by textual evidence attesting to a lively trade across the eastern Mediterranean in aromatic substances and compounds, rather than in opium. The poppy-head shape of the Base Ring juglets was not a reference to their contents.
Recent studies in the southern Levant have clarified that bronze – the commonly used metal during... more Recent studies in the southern Levant have clarified that bronze – the commonly used metal during the Middle and Late Bronze Ages – continued to be produced throughout the entire Iron Age I. In order to gain more information concerning the metallurgical industry in southern Canaan during the Late Bronze–Iron Age transition, we performed an archaeometallurgical study of three well-preserved bronze objects – a 13th century BCE axe and 12th century BCE hoe and handle – discovered in the renewed excavations at Tel Beth-Shemesh, Israel. Analyzing the composition, microstructure and microhardness of the objects, the study aims at reconstructing their manufacturing processes. The chemical analysis revealed that the three objects were made of bronze, with up to 6.2 wt% Sn and up to 4.0 wt% Pb. Giving their properties and shape, the objects were first cast, most likely in an open mould and then brought to the desired final size and shape probably through cold-forging and annealing cycles. The results of the present research contribute to the accumulating knowledge concerning the Canaanite metallurgical industry during the Late Bronze II–Iron Age I transition.
The Cambridge Prehistory of the Bronze and Iron Age Mediterranean, 2014
The early Iron Age (twelfth–eleventh centuries BC) in the southern Levant (Israel/Palestine) saw ... more The early Iron Age (twelfth–eleventh centuries BC) in the southern Levant (Israel/Palestine) saw the disintegration of Egyptian imperial control and of the Canaanite city-state system that had characterized the region in the Late Bronze Age. New social and cultural groups – Philistines and Israelites – appeared on the historical stage. Recent archaeological research has added much new data about both groups, yet has also questioned (rightly or wrongly) traditional paradigms concerning their emergence in the land. When critically examined, it becomes clear that Philistine and Israelite identities are dialectically related. A variety of processes visible in the archaeological record – migration, interaction, border encounters, and separation – led to ethnic negotiation and demarcation. Moreover the Canaanite population, the substratum upon which the new group identities were built, played a neglected yet highly important role in the processes of ethnogenesis that took place in the region during the early Iron Age.
Over half a century ago Robert Merrillees raised a brilliant hypothesis according to which Late C... more Over half a century ago Robert Merrillees raised a brilliant hypothesis according to which Late Cypriot Base Ring juglets, supposedly shaped like inverted poppy seed pod to advertise their contents, traded opium over the Eastern Mediterranean. This most appealing idea was enthusiastically embraced by students of the Ancient Near East, in spite of the meager scientific evidence supporting it. In order to provide new insights to this intriguing issue four Base Ring I juglets recently found in a secured Late Bronze IIA (14th century BCE) context at Tel Beth-Shemesh, Israel, were submitted for residue analysis at the University of New York at Albany. No traces of opium were found in these juglets. Analysis of 14 additional Base Ring juglets and jugs from Cyprus yielded similar results. Rather, the juglets from Beth-Shemesh contained aromatic oils which could be used externally or consumed for their medicinal benefits. It seems that the one and only positive case as yet of a Base Ring juglet containing opium (from an unprovenanced origin, probably reused) is an exception that proves the rule – Base Ring juglets mainly carried non-narcotic substances.
Palestine Exploration Quarterly, 2013
ABSTRACT At Ain Shems (Beth-Shemesh) in 1911–1912, Duncan Mackenzie exposed a massive city wall a... more ABSTRACT At Ain Shems (Beth-Shemesh) in 1911–1912, Duncan Mackenzie exposed a massive city wall and its ‘South Gate’. Mackenzie published only a schematic plan of the gate, which he dated back to the ‘Canaanite period’, and covered it at the end of his work. The gate comprises one of the finest examples of Middle Bronze city gates known from the Land of Israel, yet its asymmetrical plan and final date of use remained a puzzle for almost a century. Combining archaeological clues on the ground with a study of Mackenzie's unpublished documents in the PEF archive, the authors' renewed excavations at Tel Beth-Shemesh, located the hidden ‘South Gate’ and exposed it anew. The new excavation revealed unknown details about the gate's plan and determined Late Bronze IIA as the terminus ad quem for its function as a gate. A reassessment of the ‘South Gate’ architecture, roofing, and system of closure provides new insights concerning its daily functioning, and raises doubts about the conventional uniform reconstruction of known MB gates. The role of Beth-Shemesh as a fortified MBIIB-C city in the northern Shephelah is discussed vis-à-vis its neighbouring sites: Tel Batash, Tel Miqne, and Gezer.
The Annual of the British School at Athens, 2013
A medium-size Amenhotep III scarab recently discovered in the excavations at Tel Beth-Shemesh, Is... more A medium-size Amenhotep III scarab recently discovered in the excavations at Tel Beth-Shemesh, Israel, together with two decorated Late Minoan IIIA1 cups enables a fresh look at the synchronism between Late Minoan IIIA1 and Amenhotep III. The scarab is identified as commemorative, produced on the occasion of Amenhotep III’s first Jubilee or Sed festival.
In light of this interpretation a new examination of the renowned and debated Amenhotep III scarab from Sellopoulo Tomb 4 is presented. It is proposed here to identify this scarab also as commemorative as it includes, in addition to the pharaoh’s prenomen, an epithet which relates it too to Amenhotep III’s first Sed festival.
Both scarabs, from Beth-Shemesh and Sellopoulo, are shown to have been produced between Amenhotep III’s Regnal Years 28/25 and 34 respectively – most probably around Regnal Year 28 – and presumably reached their destination about that time. Further analysis led to the conclusion that the envisioned Egyptian embassy to the Aegean, which may have been the source for the ‘Aegean List’ of Kom el-Hetan, took place also during Amenhotep III’s Regnal Year 28.
The two culturally different and geographically remote contexts in which the Beth-Shemesh and Sellopoulo scarabs were found – a destruction layer in Canaan and a tomb in Crete – tell the same story: Late Minoan IIIA1 was in vogue at least until the last decade of Amenhotep III’s reign in the mid-fourteenth century BC. This conclusion has important implications for the political and cultural history of Knossos and may anchor the sequence of events of the Final Palatial period in a more solid chronological framework.
Beth-Shemesh in the early 20th century, a scholarly myth about Philistine domination at the site ... more Beth-Shemesh in the early 20th century, a scholarly myth about Philistine domination at the site during Iron Age I was born. Renewed excavations at Beth-Shemesh by the authors dispelled this unfounded hypothesis. In a sequence of Iron I levels, Canaanite cultural traditions are dominant. Only a meager amount of Bichrome Philistine pottery was found, and other items of Philistine affiliation are missing. Furthermore, pork consumption was completely avoided at Beth-Shemesh in contrast with adjacent Philistine sites. Review of geopolitical changes in the Shephelah during the Late Bronze-Iron Age transition indicates that the Canaanite inhabitants of Beth-Shemesh took advantage of their location at the Philistine periphery and resisted Philistine hegemony. By denying foodways (eating and drinking) that symbolized their new aggressive neighbors, the people of Beth-Shemesh culturally identified themselves as "non-Philistine." But since an inverse process, by which elements of Philistine culture were adopted by Canaanites living within the Philistine territory, is also evident, it is apparent that whether adopting or denying Philistine cultural elements, the indigenous population of the Shephelah changed its previous way of life during Iron Age I.
Two adjoining fragments of a storage jar bearing an archaic alphabetic inscription were found dur... more Two adjoining fragments of a storage jar bearing an archaic alphabetic inscription were found during the renewed excavations at Tel Beth-Shemesh. Analysis indicates that, though found in separate contexts, the two sherds derived from a common source of predominately late Bronze ii and early iron i materials. A date of 1150–1100 BCe for the provenance of the inscription is most likely. The inscription consists of six or seven alphabetic signs incised on the jar before firing. Though only the word or name element b>l is unequivocally recognizable, the original inscription seems to have included a statement of ownership and an indication of the contents of the vessel. A paleographical analysis of the letter signs shows the writing to be characteristic of the mid-12th century BCe or slightly earlier and a date of ca. 1150 BCe, in accordance with its archaeological context, is entirely plausible. The use of the divine name Ba>l may hint at the cultural background of the iron Age i population of Beth-Shemesh. Two adjoining potsherds bearing a single archaic alphabetic inscription were found in 2001 during the 11th excavation season at Tel Beth-Shemesh (Fig. 1). The two sherds were recovered separately from different depositional layers of the same stratigraphical context (Level 4) within the same excavation square (T47) in Area E on the southern part of the mound (for map and comprehensive summary of the renewed excavations at the site, see Bunimovitz and Lederman 2009). The smaller sherd is trapezoidal in shape and bears two complete letter signs and a fragment of a third; the larger sherd is rectangular and bears four complete signs (Table 1). The join between the two sherds was recognized by the excavators during artefact analysis after the conclusion of the 2001 season. Thus the entire extant inscription, which is presumably incomplete, consists of seven letter signs—six complete and one fragmentary. The signs had been incised on the body of a
For over a century, the archaeology of the Land of Israel went hand in hand with the Bible. Bibli... more For over a century, the archaeology of the Land of Israel went hand in hand with the Bible. Biblical Archaeology, the outcome of this interaction, has been normally conceived as the handmaiden of the biblical texts, authenticating and illustrating them. Whether motivated by theological or secular agenda, the main tenet of Biblical Archaeology was political history. In spite of recent claims for the emancipation of archaeology from the tyranny of the biblical texts, the archaeological agenda is still biblical, pursuing questions related to biblical historiography. Paradoxically, however, due to its problematic nature, the use of the Bible in archaeological discourse is considered today almost illegitimate.
We envision a different integration between archaeology and the Bible. On the one hand, an archaeological agenda, independent of the biblical text, will open a much wider range of social and cultural questions. On the other, using the Bible as a cultural document to answer these questions will restore its central place in the archaeological discourse of the biblical period. Conceiving of both biblical texts and ancient material artifacts as cultural documents, we believe that their inspection will be fruitful and enlightening. Words and artifacts can give us access to the mindset of the people of the biblical period. Encapsulated in both are the worldviews, cosmology, perceptions of landscape, ideology, symbolism, etc. of the people who produced them. The insights gained by this approach will eventually result in a better understanding of biblical political history.
International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 2013
We present a zooarchaeological analysis of the faunal remains at Tel Beth-Shemesh, a site located... more We present a zooarchaeological analysis of the faunal remains at Tel Beth-Shemesh, a site located in the Shephelah region of Israel, which has been dated to the Late Bronze Age and Iron Age I. The site, identified as the biblical city of Beth-Shemesh, was a Canaanite border town between Philistine and Israelite settlements and of great importance in our attempts to understand the social and cultural transformations that occurred in the southern Levant during those periods. This study contributes to a more accurate understanding of the cultural identity of the site's inhabitants by exploring the cultural differences between populations as reflected in their different dietary preferences. We analysed the subsistence economy at the site, the general exploitation patterns, herd management strategies and consumption practices, all of which are based mostly on domestic livestock. We determined the cultural identity at the site mainly by comparing the representation of pig remains with that found at other sites in the region, and offer various explanations for the differences. The comparisons revealed clear differences between Tel Beth-Shemesh and other known nearby Philistine sites. This site appears to have possessed a self-contained production and consumption economy with similarities in the general pattern of animal exploitation between the two periods. These similarities constitute evidence for the continuation of the local population and of its culture at the site during the period of turmoil that swept the region during the transition to the Iron Age.
ABSTRACT: In the 14th (2005) season of the renewed excavations at Tel Beth-Shemesh, a small Phili... more ABSTRACT: In the 14th (2005) season of the renewed excavations at Tel Beth-Shemesh, a small Philistine bell-shaped bowl with a unique fish motif depicted inside was discovered in an Iron I context (Level 6). Investigation of the motif — an ‘X-rayed’ fish—showed that it differs conspicuously from other Philistine fish images and that it drew its inspiration from Mycenaean pictorial pottery. The Beth-Shemesh fish is, however, unique in its artistic attributes and placement.
This is a detailed and updated discussion of the Iron Age four room house (repeating some of the ... more This is a detailed and updated discussion of the Iron Age four room house (repeating some of the ideas expressed in previous articles, and also expanding and exploring new issues).
The article does not have an abstract, and below are the opening paragraphs of the paper:
"Houses serve not only as shelters from the elements. Since they accommodate families of various types, sizes and social configurations, they embody a variety of social and cognitive aspects (e.g., Oliver 1987; Waterson 1990). The built environment allows for certain types of social activities and interaction, and therefore structure the inhabitants perceptions. As Winston Churchill once said, “we shape our buildings; thereafter they shape us.”
This clearly seems to be the case in Iron Age Israel. In this period a house of a very rigid plan became very dominant, and this rigidity in itself might hint at its social importance. The social significance of the house as a social unit is also exemplified by the language – the word for "house" (bayit) is also used to designate a "family", and even larger kinship units; at times this word reflected the entire kingdom (for the usages of the term, see Schloen 2001; with connection to the four-room house, see Faust and Bunimovitz 2008: 161-2, and references).
In this article we intend to discuss the Iron Age dwelling – the famous four-room house – and to show that it was a microcosmos of the Israelite world. This structure can serve, therefore, as a window into all aspects of Israelite society, from family structure, through wealth, to ethnicity, cosmology, perceptions of space, and even notions of social justice."
To download the article, go to:
http://lisa.biu.ac.il/files/lisa/shared/135-_faust-bunimovitz-2014-in_household_religion-four_room_houses.pdf
Copyright © 2014 by Eisenbrauns; the article is placed at my BIU webpage by permission of the publisher. The book may be purchased here: http://www.eisenbrauns.com/item/ALBHOUSEH
For over a century, the archaeology of the Land of Israel went hand in hand with the Bible. Bibli... more For over a century, the archaeology of the Land of Israel went hand in hand with the Bible. Biblical archaeology, the outcome of this interaction, has been normally conceived as the handmaiden of the biblical texts, authenticating and illustrating them. Whether motivated by theological or secular agenda, the main tenet of biblical archaeology was political history. In spite of recent claims for the emancipation of archaeology from the tyranny of the biblical texts, the archaeological agenda is still biblical, pursuing questions related to biblical historiography. Paradoxically, however, due to its problematic nature, the use of the Bible in archaeological discourse is considered today almost illegitimate.
We envision a different integration between archaeology and the Bible. On the one hand, an archaeological agenda, independent of the biblical text, will open a much wider range of social and cultural questions. On the other hand, using the Bible as a cultural document to answer these questions will restore its central place in the archaeological discourse of the biblical period. Conceiving of both biblical texts and ancient material artifacts as cultural documents, we believe that their inspection will be fruitful and enlightening. Words and artifacts can give us access to the mindset of the people of the biblical period. Encapsulated in both are the worldviews, cosmology, perceptions of landscape, ideology, symbolism, etc. of the people who produced them. The insights gained by this approach will eventually result in a better understanding of biblical political history.
Proponents of EB III-IV continuity have downplayed cultural changes following the urban collapse ... more Proponents of EB III-IV continuity have downplayed cultural changes following the urban collapse in Canaan. Questioning this trend, we argue for a significant ceramic shift, highlighted by the introduction of the teapot and cup/chalice. This reflects a change from status definition through feasting in the Early Bronze Age to drinking in the Intermediate Bronze Age. As the expression of status through drink was prevalent in contemporary urban Syria, mobile groups from the urban periphery could have introduced drinking paraphernalia into northern Canaan in emulation of the Syrian elite.
A critical review of the history of IBA interpretation, with particular reference to 'caliciform'... more A critical review of the history of IBA interpretation, with particular reference to 'caliciform' ceramics.
W. G. Dever Fest. 2006
American Journal of …, Jan 1, 2003
