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Papers by Alexander Antonov

CIDOB (Barcelona centre for international affairs), 2022

With digital ecosystems being questioned around the world, this paper examines the EU’s role in a... more With digital ecosystems being questioned around the world, this paper examines the EU’s role in and contribution to the emerging concept of artificial intelligence (AI) governance. Seen by the EU as the key ingredient for innovation, the adoption of AI systems has altered our understanding of governance. Framing AI as an autonomous digital technology embedded in social structures, this paper argues that EU citizens' trust in AI can be increased if the innovation it entails is grounded in a fundamental rights-based approach. This is assessed based on the work of the High-Level Expert Group on AI (which has developed a framework for trustworthy AI) and the European Commission’s recently approved proposal for an Artificial Intelligence Act (taking a risk-based approach).

CIDOB (Barcelona centre for international affairs), 2022

With digital ecosystems being questioned around the world, this paper examines the EU’s role in a... more With digital ecosystems being questioned around the world, this paper examines the EU’s role in and contribution to the emerging concept of artificial intelligence (AI) governance. Seen by the EU as the key ingredient for innovation, the adoption of AI systems has altered our understanding of governance. Framing AI as an autonomous digital technology embedded in social structures, this paper argues that EU citizens' trust in AI can be increased if the innovation it entails is grounded in a fundamental rights-based approach. This is assessed based on the work of the High-Level Expert Group on AI (which has developed a framework for trustworthy AI) and the European Commission’s recently approved proposal for an Artificial Intelligence Act (taking a risk-based approach).

Revista CIDOB d'Afers Internacionals, 2022

En un contexto de ecosistemas digitales mundialmente cuestionados, este artículo examina el papel... more En un contexto de ecosistemas digitales mundialmente cuestionados, este artículo examina el papel y la contribución de la UE al concepto emergente de la gobernanza de la inteligencia artificial (IA). Entendida esta por la UE como el ingrediente fundamental para la innovación, la adopción de sistemas de IA ha alterado nuestra comprensión de la gobernanza. Enmarcando la IA como una tecnología digital autónoma integrada en las estructuras sociales, este artículo argumenta que se puede aumentar la confianza de la ciudadanía de la UE hacia la IA si la innovación que esta comporta se fundamenta en un enfoque basado en los derechos fundamentales. Ello se evalúa a partir del trabajo del Grupo de Expertos de Alto Nivel en IA (que ha desarrollado el marco para una IA fiable) y la propuesta recién aprobada de la Comisión Europea para una Ley de inteligencia artificial (con un enfoque basado en el riesgo).

2021 International Symposium on Computer Science and Intelligent Controls (ISCSIC), 2021

The widespread implementation of smart meters (SM) and the deployment of the advanced metering in... more The widespread implementation of smart meters (SM) and the deployment of the advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) provide large amounts of fine-grained data on prosumers. Machine learning (ML) algorithms are used in different techniques, e.g. non-intrusive load monitoring (NILM), to extract useful information from collected data. However, the use of ML algorithms to gain insight on prosumer behavior and characteristics raises not only numerous technical but also legal concerns. This paper maps electricity prosumer concerns towards the AMI and its ML based analytical tools in terms of data protection, privacy and cybersecurity and conducts a legal analysis of the identified prosumer concerns within the context of the EU regulatory frameworks. By mapping the concerns referred to in the technical literature, the main aim of the paper is to provide a legal perspective on those concerns. The output of this paper is a visual tool in form of a table, meant to guide prosumers, utility, technology and energy service providers. It shows the areas that need increased attention when dealing with specific prosumer concerns as identified in the technical literature.

IEEE, 2021

The widespread implementation of smart meters (SM) and the deployment of the advanced metering in... more The widespread implementation of smart meters (SM) and the deployment of the advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) provide large amounts of fine-grained data on prosumers. Machine learning (ML) algorithms are used in different techniques, e.g. non-intrusive load monitoring (NILM), to extract useful information from collected data. However, the use of ML algorithms to gain insight on prosumer behavior and characteristics raises not only numerous technical but also legal concerns. This paper maps electricity prosumer concerns towards the AMI and its ML based analytical tools in terms of data protection, privacy and cybersecurity and conducts a legal analysis of the identified prosumer concerns within the context of the EU regulatory frameworks. By mapping the concerns referred to in the technical literature, the main aim of the paper is to provide a legal perspective on those concerns. The output of this paper is a visual tool in form of a table, meant to guide prosumers, utility, technology and energy service providers. It shows the areas that need increased attention when dealing with specific prosumer concerns as identified in the technical literature.

The European Union has a wide spectrum of legal instruments addressing various aspects of cyberse... more The European Union has a wide spectrum of legal instruments addressing various aspects of cybersecurity, ranging from electronic communication laws, data protection regulations through network and information security legislation to instruments dealing with cybercrime and recommendations on coordinated response to large scale cyber incidents – all this without having a commonly accepted definition of cybersecurity.

The EU in the 21st Century

Artificial intelligence has become a frequent subject of discussion at different international fo... more Artificial intelligence has become a frequent subject of discussion at different international forums in recent years. Classified by the European Union as one of the "most strategic technologies in the 21st century", in 2018 the EU Commission mandated a 52-member strong High-Level Expert Group on AI to discuss the ethical, legal, economic and social impact of this promising technology. Providing a holistic view on the main ethical and legal questions surrounding AI-powered systems, this chapter intends to explore the latest EU initiatives on AI governance with a view to identifying the main challenges ahead for the EU to become a "leader in cutting-edge AI that can be trusted throughout the world". Keywords European Union • Artificial intelligence • High-Level Expert Group on AI • Trustworthy AI • AI race This chapter makes reference to three reports on autonomous intelligent technologies to which the authors had contributed as part of the project "Lep18096 'Elaborating legal Solutions related to autonomous intelligent technologies (15.12.2018-30.04.2019)'", coordinated by Prof. Kerikmäe and financed by the Estonian government (EV Riigikantselei). Special thanks are due to Prof. Hoffmann (TalTech University, Department of Law) for his helpful comments on the manuscript.

Summary The majority of legal practitioners and liberal democratic states hold the same opinion:... more Summary

The majority of legal practitioners and liberal democratic states hold the same opinion: Russia’s annexation of Crimea and its support to the rebels in Eastern Ukraine constituted an act of aggression against the sovereign state of Ukraine. Four years have passed since fighting erupted in Ukrainian regions adjacent to Russia leaving thousands of innocent civilians dead, traumatised or homeless. Families have been torn apart. Despite a vast amount of evidence, Russia has continued to deny the facts that it breached international law by annexing a foreign territory and supporting the so-called Donetsk People’s Republic and Luhansk People’s Republic after the ousting of the former pro-Russian president Viktor Yanukovych at the end of the Maidan revolution in February 2014.

Most researchers expounded on the international norms Russia has put at stake and pondered over Russia’s unreasonable legal justifications for its actions in Crimea. The Ukraine crisis has been dealt with extensively both from a political science and legal perspective but only a few scholars discussed the tools international law provide to establish Russia’s responsibility for its wrongful conduct and to hold individuals responsible, suspected of having committed crimes against humanity and war crimes on Ukrainian territory.

Scrutinizing Ukraine’s recent application at the International Court of Justice on the basis of two treaties, the International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism and the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, and analysing Ukraine’s acceptance of the ICC jurisdiction pursuant to Art. 12(3) of the Rome Statute, this author aimed to identify the tools and barriers of international law in the context of establishing state and, respectively, individual responsibility. An analysis of the role of the UN Human Rights Monitoring Mission in Ukraine complemented the former two perspectives. Whereas the ICJ and the ICC can enforce international law and hold either states (ICJ) or individuals responsible (ICC), the HRMMU was examined for the purpose of creating accountability for grave violations of international human rights law and international humanitarian law.

This research primarily found out that the tools of international law to hold Russia responsible for its illegal use of force are limited in the specific case of Ukraine at the ICJ. The vague plausibility test of the ICJ sets a high threshold for Ukraine at the preliminary stage of proceedings.
Contrary to the rather grim outlook for Ukraine’s application at the ICJ, the results of the analysis of the second perspective allow for being more optimistic that serious crimes committed by individuals affiliated with the DPR/LPR or the Russian government will not go unpunished. An important question remains whether the OTP will conclude that Russia exercised overall control over the rebels. Even though there is reason to believe that the Prosecutor of the ICC will open an investigation into the situation in Ukraine, one might not expect this to happen any time soon given political and institutional barriers.

The assessment of the third perspective showed that the HRMMU has helped to fill the legal void left by the actions of Russia in Crimea and the rebels in the Donbas. The HRMMU has given victims and their relatives a voice. Although the mission cannot enforce international law, it has proved helpful in gathering evidence and documenting violations of international human rights law and international humanitarian law in its reports, which had already been cited by the ICJ and the ICC.

Keywords: International Court of Justice, State Responsibility, Plausibility Test, International Criminal Court, Individual Responsibility, Overall Control Test, UN Human Rights Monitoring Mission in Ukraine, Accountability

Books by Alexander Antonov

Initially, governments reviewed the adequacy of extant legal frameworks and developed non-binding... more Initially, governments reviewed the adequacy of extant legal frameworks and developed non-binding ethics guidelines, recommendations, declarations, and codes of conduct for

CIDOB (Barcelona centre for international affairs), 2022

With digital ecosystems being questioned around the world, this paper examines the EU’s role in a... more With digital ecosystems being questioned around the world, this paper examines the EU’s role in and contribution to the emerging concept of artificial intelligence (AI) governance. Seen by the EU as the key ingredient for innovation, the adoption of AI systems has altered our understanding of governance. Framing AI as an autonomous digital technology embedded in social structures, this paper argues that EU citizens' trust in AI can be increased if the innovation it entails is grounded in a fundamental rights-based approach. This is assessed based on the work of the High-Level Expert Group on AI (which has developed a framework for trustworthy AI) and the European Commission’s recently approved proposal for an Artificial Intelligence Act (taking a risk-based approach).

CIDOB (Barcelona centre for international affairs), 2022

With digital ecosystems being questioned around the world, this paper examines the EU’s role in a... more With digital ecosystems being questioned around the world, this paper examines the EU’s role in and contribution to the emerging concept of artificial intelligence (AI) governance. Seen by the EU as the key ingredient for innovation, the adoption of AI systems has altered our understanding of governance. Framing AI as an autonomous digital technology embedded in social structures, this paper argues that EU citizens' trust in AI can be increased if the innovation it entails is grounded in a fundamental rights-based approach. This is assessed based on the work of the High-Level Expert Group on AI (which has developed a framework for trustworthy AI) and the European Commission’s recently approved proposal for an Artificial Intelligence Act (taking a risk-based approach).

Revista CIDOB d'Afers Internacionals, 2022

En un contexto de ecosistemas digitales mundialmente cuestionados, este artículo examina el papel... more En un contexto de ecosistemas digitales mundialmente cuestionados, este artículo examina el papel y la contribución de la UE al concepto emergente de la gobernanza de la inteligencia artificial (IA). Entendida esta por la UE como el ingrediente fundamental para la innovación, la adopción de sistemas de IA ha alterado nuestra comprensión de la gobernanza. Enmarcando la IA como una tecnología digital autónoma integrada en las estructuras sociales, este artículo argumenta que se puede aumentar la confianza de la ciudadanía de la UE hacia la IA si la innovación que esta comporta se fundamenta en un enfoque basado en los derechos fundamentales. Ello se evalúa a partir del trabajo del Grupo de Expertos de Alto Nivel en IA (que ha desarrollado el marco para una IA fiable) y la propuesta recién aprobada de la Comisión Europea para una Ley de inteligencia artificial (con un enfoque basado en el riesgo).

2021 International Symposium on Computer Science and Intelligent Controls (ISCSIC), 2021

The widespread implementation of smart meters (SM) and the deployment of the advanced metering in... more The widespread implementation of smart meters (SM) and the deployment of the advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) provide large amounts of fine-grained data on prosumers. Machine learning (ML) algorithms are used in different techniques, e.g. non-intrusive load monitoring (NILM), to extract useful information from collected data. However, the use of ML algorithms to gain insight on prosumer behavior and characteristics raises not only numerous technical but also legal concerns. This paper maps electricity prosumer concerns towards the AMI and its ML based analytical tools in terms of data protection, privacy and cybersecurity and conducts a legal analysis of the identified prosumer concerns within the context of the EU regulatory frameworks. By mapping the concerns referred to in the technical literature, the main aim of the paper is to provide a legal perspective on those concerns. The output of this paper is a visual tool in form of a table, meant to guide prosumers, utility, technology and energy service providers. It shows the areas that need increased attention when dealing with specific prosumer concerns as identified in the technical literature.

IEEE, 2021

The widespread implementation of smart meters (SM) and the deployment of the advanced metering in... more The widespread implementation of smart meters (SM) and the deployment of the advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) provide large amounts of fine-grained data on prosumers. Machine learning (ML) algorithms are used in different techniques, e.g. non-intrusive load monitoring (NILM), to extract useful information from collected data. However, the use of ML algorithms to gain insight on prosumer behavior and characteristics raises not only numerous technical but also legal concerns. This paper maps electricity prosumer concerns towards the AMI and its ML based analytical tools in terms of data protection, privacy and cybersecurity and conducts a legal analysis of the identified prosumer concerns within the context of the EU regulatory frameworks. By mapping the concerns referred to in the technical literature, the main aim of the paper is to provide a legal perspective on those concerns. The output of this paper is a visual tool in form of a table, meant to guide prosumers, utility, technology and energy service providers. It shows the areas that need increased attention when dealing with specific prosumer concerns as identified in the technical literature.

The European Union has a wide spectrum of legal instruments addressing various aspects of cyberse... more The European Union has a wide spectrum of legal instruments addressing various aspects of cybersecurity, ranging from electronic communication laws, data protection regulations through network and information security legislation to instruments dealing with cybercrime and recommendations on coordinated response to large scale cyber incidents – all this without having a commonly accepted definition of cybersecurity.

The EU in the 21st Century

Artificial intelligence has become a frequent subject of discussion at different international fo... more Artificial intelligence has become a frequent subject of discussion at different international forums in recent years. Classified by the European Union as one of the "most strategic technologies in the 21st century", in 2018 the EU Commission mandated a 52-member strong High-Level Expert Group on AI to discuss the ethical, legal, economic and social impact of this promising technology. Providing a holistic view on the main ethical and legal questions surrounding AI-powered systems, this chapter intends to explore the latest EU initiatives on AI governance with a view to identifying the main challenges ahead for the EU to become a "leader in cutting-edge AI that can be trusted throughout the world". Keywords European Union • Artificial intelligence • High-Level Expert Group on AI • Trustworthy AI • AI race This chapter makes reference to three reports on autonomous intelligent technologies to which the authors had contributed as part of the project "Lep18096 'Elaborating legal Solutions related to autonomous intelligent technologies (15.12.2018-30.04.2019)'", coordinated by Prof. Kerikmäe and financed by the Estonian government (EV Riigikantselei). Special thanks are due to Prof. Hoffmann (TalTech University, Department of Law) for his helpful comments on the manuscript.

Summary The majority of legal practitioners and liberal democratic states hold the same opinion:... more Summary

The majority of legal practitioners and liberal democratic states hold the same opinion: Russia’s annexation of Crimea and its support to the rebels in Eastern Ukraine constituted an act of aggression against the sovereign state of Ukraine. Four years have passed since fighting erupted in Ukrainian regions adjacent to Russia leaving thousands of innocent civilians dead, traumatised or homeless. Families have been torn apart. Despite a vast amount of evidence, Russia has continued to deny the facts that it breached international law by annexing a foreign territory and supporting the so-called Donetsk People’s Republic and Luhansk People’s Republic after the ousting of the former pro-Russian president Viktor Yanukovych at the end of the Maidan revolution in February 2014.

Most researchers expounded on the international norms Russia has put at stake and pondered over Russia’s unreasonable legal justifications for its actions in Crimea. The Ukraine crisis has been dealt with extensively both from a political science and legal perspective but only a few scholars discussed the tools international law provide to establish Russia’s responsibility for its wrongful conduct and to hold individuals responsible, suspected of having committed crimes against humanity and war crimes on Ukrainian territory.

Scrutinizing Ukraine’s recent application at the International Court of Justice on the basis of two treaties, the International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism and the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, and analysing Ukraine’s acceptance of the ICC jurisdiction pursuant to Art. 12(3) of the Rome Statute, this author aimed to identify the tools and barriers of international law in the context of establishing state and, respectively, individual responsibility. An analysis of the role of the UN Human Rights Monitoring Mission in Ukraine complemented the former two perspectives. Whereas the ICJ and the ICC can enforce international law and hold either states (ICJ) or individuals responsible (ICC), the HRMMU was examined for the purpose of creating accountability for grave violations of international human rights law and international humanitarian law.

This research primarily found out that the tools of international law to hold Russia responsible for its illegal use of force are limited in the specific case of Ukraine at the ICJ. The vague plausibility test of the ICJ sets a high threshold for Ukraine at the preliminary stage of proceedings.
Contrary to the rather grim outlook for Ukraine’s application at the ICJ, the results of the analysis of the second perspective allow for being more optimistic that serious crimes committed by individuals affiliated with the DPR/LPR or the Russian government will not go unpunished. An important question remains whether the OTP will conclude that Russia exercised overall control over the rebels. Even though there is reason to believe that the Prosecutor of the ICC will open an investigation into the situation in Ukraine, one might not expect this to happen any time soon given political and institutional barriers.

The assessment of the third perspective showed that the HRMMU has helped to fill the legal void left by the actions of Russia in Crimea and the rebels in the Donbas. The HRMMU has given victims and their relatives a voice. Although the mission cannot enforce international law, it has proved helpful in gathering evidence and documenting violations of international human rights law and international humanitarian law in its reports, which had already been cited by the ICJ and the ICC.

Keywords: International Court of Justice, State Responsibility, Plausibility Test, International Criminal Court, Individual Responsibility, Overall Control Test, UN Human Rights Monitoring Mission in Ukraine, Accountability

Initially, governments reviewed the adequacy of extant legal frameworks and developed non-binding... more Initially, governments reviewed the adequacy of extant legal frameworks and developed non-binding ethics guidelines, recommendations, declarations, and codes of conduct for