José-Antonio Serratos-Hernández | Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México (original) (raw)

Papers by José-Antonio Serratos-Hernández

Objectives: Current models of transgene dispersal focus on gene flow via pollen while neglecting ... more Objectives: Current models of transgene dispersal focus on gene flow via pollen while neglecting seed, a vital vehicle for gene flow in centers of crop origin and diversity. We analyze the dispersal of maize transgenes via seeds in Mexico, the crop's cradle. Methods: We use immunoassays (ELISA) to screen for the activity of recombinant proteins in a nationwide sample of farmer seed stocks. We estimate critical parameters of seed population dynamics using household survey data and combine these estimates with analytical results to examine presumed sources and mechanisms of dispersal. Results: Recombinant proteins Cry1Ab/Ac and CP4/EPSPS were found in 3.1% and 1.8% of samples, respectively. They are most abundant in southeast Mexico but also present in the west-central region. Diffusion of seed and grain imported from the United States might explain the frequency and distribution of transgenes in west-central Mexico but not in the southeast. Conclusions: Understanding the potential for transgene survival and dispersal should help design methods to regulate the diffusion of germplasm into local seed stocks. Further research is needed on the interactions between formal and informal seed systems and grain markets in centers of crop origin and diversification.

A possible consequence of planting genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in centres of crop origi... more A possible consequence of planting genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in centres of crop origin is unintended gene flow into traditional landraces. In 2001, a study reported the presence of the transgenic 35S promoter in maize landraces sampled in 2000 from the Sierra Juarez of Oaxaca, Mexico. Analysis of a large sample taken from the same region in 2003 and 2004 could not confirm the existence of transgenes, thereby casting doubt on the earlier results. These two studies were based on different sampling and analytical procedures and are thus hard to compare. Here, we present new molecular data for this region that confirm the presence of transgenes in three of 23 localities sampled in 2001. Transgene sequences were not detected in samples taken in 2002 from nine localities, while directed samples taken in 2004 from two of the positive 2001 localities were again found to contain transgenic sequences. These findings suggest the persistence or re-introduction of transgenes up until 2004 in this area. We address variability in recombinant sequence detection by analyzing the consistency of current molecular assays. We also present theoretical results on the limitations of estimating the probability of transgene detection in samples taken from landraces. The inclusion of a limited number of female gametes and, more importantly, aggregated transgene distributions may significantly lower detection probabilities. Our analytical and sampling considerations help explain discrepancies among different detection efforts, including the one presented here, and provide considerations for the establishment of monitoring protocols to detect the presence of transgenes among structured populations of landraces.

Maize is the predominant crop of the world. About 30 percent of world production is used for dire... more Maize is the predominant crop of the world. About 30 percent of world production is used for direct human consumption and as an industrial input, while 70 percent is used as animal feed. Mexico safeguards the main genetic diversity of maize and its wild relative teosinte, both plants native to the country. The oldest known maize ear relics were excavated in a cave in the Mexican state of Oaxaca, and were dated 6250 years before the present era. Native Mesoamericans domesticated maize, invented nixtamalization, and developed maize from a 6 cm long, popping-kernel ear to what we now recognize as modern maize with its wide variety in ear size, kernel texture, color, size, and adequacy for diverse uses. In fact, native Mesoamericans continue to develop maize on more than one million small farms in Mexico. These farmers grow their own seed and depend on maize as their main source of food. In doing this, some 84 Mexican ethnic groups are also acting as stewards of maize genetic diversity.
Transgenic food-maize has been detected—albeit in variable proportions—deep in the heartland of Mexican traditional agriculture. The Mexican Federal Government adopted a de facto moratorium to commercial production of transformed maize through its Ministry of Agriculture in 1998, but has allowed maize imports that may include transgenic maize.
Expected consequences of the presence of transformed maize in Mexico are analyzed in this book. Those consequences involve a number of issues: status of genetic diversity of maize and its wild relatives, natural ecosystems, agriculture, human and animal health, society and culture, risks and opportunities.
In this chapter, we will look at maize and its wild relatives in Mexico, from the time of maize domestication to the present. We will also examine some elements of the traditional approach to developing maize as a crop and conserving its genetic diversity, as well as its present day distribution in Mexico, and dispersion throughout the world. Finally, we will look into transformed maize and how it could interact with maize landraces.

In industrialized countries, transgenic crops have left the laboratories to be integrated into ag... more In industrialized countries, transgenic crops have left the laboratories to be integrated into agricultural production. These novel crops are the results of molecular biology research and genetic engineering applied to agriculture, and represent the first fruits of modern biotechnology in this sector. After going through mandatory evaluation processes, biotech companies were able to secure deregulation for various transgenic crop products of great economic importance. In Europe and the USA, thousands of field trials have been conducted with these new crops and agricultural, environmental and health regulatory bodies in these countries evaluated their potential impact in each of these environments. In the USA especially, government regulatory bodies, specialized in the agricultural and environmental aspects of the introduction of transgenic organisms, considered that transgenic crops such as cotton, potatoes, soybean, maize, tomatoes, squash, canola and papaya did not have a significant impact on the agroecological environment. As a result of this assessment, biotechnology products such as tomatoes with improved shelf life, insect pest-resistant and herbicide-tolerant maize or virus-resistant squash are now commercially available in the USA. Mexico has demonstrated a proactive attitude towards the regulation of transgenic plants. Standards for their management, contained release and field trials have been developed in convergence with the standards of the country’s commercial partners in North America. Although Canada, USA and Mexico can be considered as having harmonized their respective regulatory mechanisms, deregulation and many research and information aspects related to the release of transgenic plants have not been given the same weight in the three countries owing to different socioeconomic and technological conditions. In Mexico for example, the evaluation of the potential impact of transgenic plants on the agroecosystems have not received sufficient attention, as the relevant information is not available in this country. Consequently, the establishment of research criteria for new crop varieties such as transgenic maize with potential for release in countries like Mexico should be based on a complete assessment of the agroecological and socioeconomic characteristics of the country, which is located in the mezo-American region that hosts one of the main centers of origin and diversity of agricultural crops. Mexico holds a broad maize diversity with 50 different species and over 10,000 germplasm accessions held mainly in the Maize Genebank at the National Institute of Forestry, Agriculture and Livestock Research (INIFAP), and there are two of the wild relatives of maize: teosinte (Zea mexicana, Z. mays ssp. parviglumis, Z. perennis, Z. diploperennis) and Tripsacum spp. In addition, the social and economic conditions prevailing in the various maize production systems are highly heterogeneous and complex.

Factors contributing to resistance of maize to infestation by the corn weevil Sitophilus zeamais ... more Factors contributing to resistance of maize to infestation by the corn weevil Sitophilus zeamais were investigated in four populations of indigenous and improved maize from Belize. Resistance was related to the antifeedant properties of grain as well as sugar content and mechanical hardness. Grain extracts of all populations of maize significantly reduced insect feeding on treated artificial diets when compared to control diets. Consumption of treated diets was negatively correlated with phenolic content of the grain extract. An analysis by GC-MS indicated that ferulic acid and p-coumaric acid were the principal phenolics present in the extracts, and insect feeding was strongly deterred when pure substances were added to insect diets. Fluorescence associated with ferulic acid and related compounds in grain sections was located in the pericarp and aleurone layer and was especially intense in the most resistant grain variety.

Por ser una tecnología que se sustenta en diferentes áreas y disciplinas del conocimiento científ... more Por ser una tecnología que se sustenta en diferentes áreas y disciplinas del conocimiento científico, la biotecnología se ha integrado a éstas dando lugar a la generación de especialidades que influyen o cubren cada uno de estos campos como la biotecnología forestal, agrícola, pecuaria, marina y ambiental. En este esquema es notable que un área de la biotecnología que no ha sido desarrollada, en particular para un país con las singularidades de megabiodiversidad como México, es la agroecológica. La intención de este trabajo es avanzar en la definición de una nueva especialidad, la biotecnología agroecológica como una disciplina de apoyo para la agricultura sustentable.

Journal of Chemical Ecology, 1990

The (E)-ferulic acid content of the grain of nine populations of land races of maize derived from... more The (E)-ferulic acid content of the grain of nine populations of land races of maize derived from CIMMYT's collections was found to be negatively correlated to susceptibility characteristics towards the maize weevil Sitophilus zeamais. Correlation coefficients for six susceptibility parameters and (E)-ferulic acid content'were significant and ranged from -0.58 to -0.79. A multiple regression analysis by the SAS forward procedure using the primary seed characteristics associated with susceptibility indicated that the ferulic acid content was the only significant factor in explaining variation in at least two susceptibility parameters: the Dobie index and adult preference. In 15 CIMMYT pools, correlations between four susceptibility parameters and (E)-ferulic acid content were also significant (-0.76 to -0.81). The results suggest that phenolic acid content is a leading indicator of grain resistance or susceptibility to insects and may represent a newly identified mechanism of resistance. a Land race. hAbbreviations: W = white, Y = yellow, F = flint, D = dent, H = highland, T = tropical, S = subtropical, L = late, I = intermediate, E = early.

Postharvest Biology and Technology, 1993

. Is "quality protein" maize more susceptible than normal cultivars to attack by the maize weevil... more . Is "quality protein" maize more susceptible than normal cultivars to attack by the maize weevil Sitophilus zeamais? Postharvest. Biol. Technol. 2: 349-358. Thirty-one quality protein maize (QPM) populations, pools or varieties were crossed with normal pollen (QPM x NOR) to provide two sets of maize for assessment of the effect of QPM conversion on susceptiblity to Sitophilus zeamais. The QPM maize showed a very high degree of variability from very resistant to very susceptible. The mean Dobie Index, which is a measure of susceptibility to insect attack, of the QPM group was not significantly different from that of the QPMxNOR. The mean number of egg plugs oviposited on maize samples of the two groups was not significantly different. Nine QPM populations or varieties were analysed for protein, tryptophan, oil and phenolic content. Susceptibility was found to be negatively correlated with oil content and phenolics, as has been found in normal maize. Since some QPM genotypes were resistant to weevil attack, the results suggest that it is possible to breed for both quality protein and insect resistance in the same maize cultivar.

This article analyses the regulatory philosophy, institutional actions, and normative issues rela... more This article analyses the regulatory philosophy, institutional actions, and normative issues related to biosafety in Mexico from 1988 to 2008. In the context of the changes in regulatory policy, it describes the dispersion of transgenic corn in Mexico and how institutions are handling this situation in the face of grassroots participation. It proposes opening the debate to society.

In 2003, the environmental authorities of the Federal District of Mexico declared that geneticall... more In 2003, the environmental authorities of the Federal District of Mexico declared that genetically modified organisms were incompatible with ecological agriculture practices established in rural areas south of Mexico City. To ensure compliance with official standards and organic agriculture policies, steps were taken to implement an early warning system for the detection of genetically modified maize in farmers’ fields. In our sampling efforts, which were conducted in 2003, transgenic proteins expressed in maize were found in two (0.96%) of 208 samples from farmers’ fields, located in two (8%) of 25 sampled communities. Mexico imports a substantial amount of maize from the US, and due to formal and informal seed networks among rural farmers, there are many potential routes of entrance for transgenic maize into food and feed webs. To
sustain agroecological practices, preserve organic agriculture, and conserve maize landraces in the Soil Conservation area of the Mexican Federal District, environmental authorities will need to maintain and update ecological policies such as the “green seal” for organic agriculture, apply alternative technologies such as biofertilizers to enhance plant nutrition, and develop sustainable maize agriculture with the implementation of profitable intercropping systems.

Canadian Journal of Botany, 1993

En el Distrito Federal, aun cuando el área de cultivo de maíz es muy pequeña y se ha reducido ace... more En el Distrito Federal, aun cuando el área de cultivo de maíz es muy pequeña y se ha reducido aceleradamente desde hace varios años, todavía se encuentra una gran diversidad de maíces nativos en las delegaciones ubicadas en Suelo de Conservación. Es en esas delegaciones en las que se concentra la mayor superficie para siembra de maíz y en donde se asienta la mayoría de los pueblos, llamados originarios, en los que sobrevive el maíz nativo de la región y en las que se ha encontrado el maíz propio de la Mesa Central del Altiplano de México (Morales y Serratos, 2009; Serratos, 2010), aunque no se habían tenido incentivos atractivos para cultivarlo y conservarlo. Este descubrimiento permite sugerir que la cultura y la tradición agrícola de esos pueblos han sido factores que han posibilitado la continuidad del maíz nativo en una zona asediada por presiones urbanas muy intensas.

Objectives: Current models of transgene dispersal focus on gene flow via pollen while neglecting ... more Objectives: Current models of transgene dispersal focus on gene flow via pollen while neglecting seed, a vital vehicle for gene
flow in centers of crop origin and diversity. We analyze the dispersal of maize transgenes via seeds in Mexico, the crop’s cradle.
Methods: We use immunoassays (ELISA) to screen for the activity of recombinant proteins in a nationwide sample of farmer
seed stocks. We estimate critical parameters of seed population dynamics using household survey data and combine these
estimates with analytical results to examine presumed sources and mechanisms of dispersal.
Results: Recombinant proteins Cry1Ab/Ac and CP4/EPSPS were found in 3.1% and 1.8% of samples, respectively. They are
most abundant in southeast Mexico but also present in the west-central region. Diffusion of seed and grain imported from the
United States might explain the frequency and distribution of transgenes in west-central Mexico but not in the southeast.
Conclusions: Understanding the potential for transgene survival and dispersal should help design methods to regulate the
diffusion of germplasm into local seed stocks. Further research is needed on the interactions between formal and informal
seed systems and grain markets in centers of crop origin and diversification.

Se analiza la filosofía regulatoria, las acciones institucionales y la normatividad relacionadas ... more Se analiza la filosofía regulatoria, las acciones institucionales y la normatividad relacionadas con la bioseguridad en México de 1998 a 2008. En el contexto de los cambios de políticas regulatorias, se describe la dispersión de maíz transgénico en el país y cómo las instituciones enfrentan esta situación ante la participación social.

Frontiers in Ecology and The Environment, 2007

Environmental Biosafety Research, 2004

Maize diversity is widespread in Mexico and it has been stewarded by campesinos in small communit... more Maize diversity is widespread in Mexico and it has been stewarded by campesinos in small communities until the present. With the arrival of transgenic maize, the objective of this study is to analyze possible scenarios that could result if genetically modified maize were not regulated and openly available in Mexico. By applying a simple logistic model based on the conditions of maize production in Mexico, the dispersion of transgenic maize in different situations within fields of farmers is described. In traditional open systems of freely exchanged seed within communities it is concluded that the most likely outcome of GM maize release is the incorporation of transgenes in the genome of Mexican germplasm and possibly in that of teosinte.

Environmental Biosafety Research, 2005

There is much discussion of the probability of transgene flow from transgenic crop varieties to l... more There is much discussion of the probability of transgene flow from transgenic crop varieties to landraces and wild relatives in centers of origin or diversity, and its genetic, ecological, and social consequences. Without costly research on the variables determining gene flow, research on transgene frequencies in landrace (or wild relative) populations can be valuable for understanding transgene flow and its effects. Minimal research requirements include (1) understanding how farmer practices and seed systems affect landrace populations, (2) sampling to optimize N e /n (effective /census population size), (3) minimizing variance at all levels sampled, and (4) using N e to calculate binomial probabilities for transgene frequencies. A key case is maize in Mexico. Two peer-reviewed papers, based on landrace samples from the Sierra Juárez region of Oaxaca, Mexico, reached seemingly conflicting conclusions: transgenes are present (Quist and Chapela, 2001, Nature 414: 541-543; 2002, Nature 416: 602) or "detectable transgenes" are absent (Ortiz-García et al., 2005, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 102: 12338-12343 and 18242). We analyzed these papers using information on Oaxacan maize seed systems and estimates of N e . We conclude that if Quist and Chapela's results showing presence are accepted, Ortiz-García et al.'s conclusions of no evidence of transgenes at detectable levels or for their introgression into maize landraces in the Sierra de Juárez of Oaxaca are not scientifically justified. This is because their samples are not representative, and their statistical analysis is inconclusive due to using n instead of N e . Using estimates of N e based on Ortiz-García et al.'s n, we estimate that transgenes could be present in maize landraces in the Sierra Juárez region at frequencies of ~1-4%, and are more likely to be present in the 90% of Oaxacan landrace area that is not mountainous. Thus, we have no scientific evidence of maize transgene presence or absence in recent years in Mexico, Oaxaca State, or the Sierra Juárez region. et al. 198 Environ. Biosafety Res. 4, 4 (2005) (Quist y Chapela, 2001, Nature 414: 541-543; 2002, Nature 416: 602) o no hay "transgénicos detectables" (Ortiz-García et al., 2005, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 102: 12338-12343 y 18242). Nosotros hemos analizado estos artículos usando información de los sistemas de semilla de Oaxaca y cálculos de N e . Concluimos que si los resultados de Quist y Chapela mostrando la presencia de transgénicos son aceptados, las conclusiones de Ortiz-García et al. de que no existen transgénicos detectables en los maíces de la Sierra Juárez de Oaxaca no se justifican científicamente. Esto se debe a que los tamaños de muestra usados por Ortiz-García no son representativos y su análisis estadístico no es concluyente por que usaron n en lugar de N e . Usando estimadores de N e basado en el n de Ortiz-García et al., nosotros estimamos que transgénicos pueden ser presente en las razas de maíz de la región de Sierra Juárez en frecuencias de ~1-4%, además es posible que estén presentes en el 90% del área sembrado con maíz criollo que se encuentra en las zonas no montañosas de Oaxaca. Por lo tanto no hay evidencias científicas de la presencia o ausencia de maíz transgénico en años recientes en México, o en el estado de Oaxaca, o en la región de la Sierra Juárez.

Journal of Chemical Ecology, 1990

Postharvest Biology and Technology, 1993

Canadian Journal of Botany, 1993

Objectives: Current models of transgene dispersal focus on gene flow via pollen while neglecting ... more Objectives: Current models of transgene dispersal focus on gene flow via pollen while neglecting seed, a vital vehicle for gene
flow in centers of crop origin and diversity. We analyze the dispersal of maize transgenes via seeds in Mexico, the crop’s cradle.
Methods: We use immunoassays (ELISA) to screen for the activity of recombinant proteins in a nationwide sample of farmer
seed stocks. We estimate critical parameters of seed population dynamics using household survey data and combine these
estimates with analytical results to examine presumed sources and mechanisms of dispersal.
Results: Recombinant proteins Cry1Ab/Ac and CP4/EPSPS were found in 3.1% and 1.8% of samples, respectively. They are
most abundant in southeast Mexico but also present in the west-central region. Diffusion of seed and grain imported from the
United States might explain the frequency and distribution of transgenes in west-central Mexico but not in the southeast.
Conclusions: Understanding the potential for transgene survival and dispersal should help design methods to regulate the
diffusion of germplasm into local seed stocks. Further research is needed on the interactions between formal and informal
seed systems and grain markets in centers of crop origin and diversification.

Frontiers in Ecology and The Environment, 2007

Environmental Biosafety Research, 2004

Environmental Biosafety Research, 2005

Maize is the cereal of the peoples and cultures in the American continent. The most ancient civil... more Maize is the cereal of the peoples and cultures in the American continent. The most ancient civilizations in America –from the Olmecs and Teotihuacans in Mesoamerica to the Incas and Quechuans in the Andean region of South America- flourished accompanied with this plant. This link between culture and agriculture had motivated the humanists and scientists to ask: which is the origin of this cereal? How was the evolution of maize once the different human groups adopted and cultivated it for their own profit? These questions had led them to explore the past, and nowadays -thanks to the technological and scientific development- led them to unravel several enigmas which surround the domestication of this crop. Although not all the details that allow us to explain its origin and domestication had been found, the scientists reached a consensus: the direct ancestor of maize is the teosinte. Nevertheless, during more than 70 years and before reaching such conclusion, there was a deep debate which contributed to the advancement of knowledge in several areas of the scientific endeavor. So is it that some of the greatest scientists of the 20th century studied maize, its origins and diversification. For example, in 1983 the American researcher Barbara McClintock was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology due to her discovery of the mobile genetic elements1 in the chromosomes of maize. Maize is the cereal which has had more importance in the economy sector worldwide during all the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st. In the industrialized countries, maize is mainly used as forage, raw material for the production of processed foods and, recently, for ethanol production. On the other hand, in some Latin American countries and increasingly more in Africa, a great percentage of maize produced or imported is used for human consumption. In this sense, maize had been and still is a key factor for the survival of farmers and indigenous people who live in most of the countries of the American continent. It is paradoxical that, even with each time less and less economic resources allocated for the inhabitants of the poorest communities, they are the stewards of maize diversity. Such situation is putting at risk valuable seeds: the researches and studies conducted throughout several years from the point of view of scientific and humanistic disciplines, have proved that the role of the farmer is of uttermost importance for the preservation and diversification of maize. However, the research and development programs for in situ conservation of maize are very restricted and had not been generalized to important regions with great concentration of ethnic and farming groups. Nowadays, keeping maize germplasm banks, or ex situ conservation, is the dominant strategy because it is linked to the technological path of the developed countries and also because the in situ conservation in several less developed countries is not supported due to financial restrictions. It is foreseen that within a few years, the lack of care and attention to these rural communities where the mayor percentage of native germplasm is, will have a negative impact on maize diversity. It is also foreseen that the public policies that promote the intensive capital technologies which move the jobs towards urban areas or towards foreign countries, will determine the rate of extinction of genetic resources of maize. The risk of loosing genetic diversity of maize is very high. The economic conditions of poverty and marginalization faced by the farmers, as is already evident in several regions of America, will lead to a generalized extinction of maize diversity. One way to alleviate this situation is to re-value the crop through the knowledge of its origin and diversification in the American Continent. This document aims to recover the history of the scientific research and socio-cultural aspects related to the origin and diversity of native maize, in order to allow the peoples of America rescue the plant which is a symbol of the American continent and its culture.

En Septiembre de 1995, el Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales y Agropecuarias (INIFA... more En Septiembre de 1995, el Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales y Agropecuarias (INIFAP), el Comité Nacional de Bioseguridad Agrícola (CNBA) y el Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo (CIMMYT), con financiamiento del Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo (PNUD), organizaron el Foro y taller, “Flujo genético entre maíz criollo, maíz mejorado y teocintle: implicaciones para el maíz transgénico”, el cual se realizó en las instalaciones del CIMMYT en El Batán, México. El propósito de esta reunión fue conjuntar en un grupo de trabajo a científicos de diversas disciplinas, principalmente expertos en el área de genética de maíz y teocintle, con la finalidad de analizar y discutir la información y los estudios más relevantes acerca del flujo genético entre maíz y teocintle en México, en vista de los actuales desarrollos biotecnológicos en la producción de maíz transgénico. Se intentó profundizar, junto con los expertos de diferentes áreas, en el análisis de las implicaciones que se derivan de esta interacción genética, y las consecuencias para la reglamentación en el manejo y evaluación del maíz transgénico. En este sentido, se tenía la confianza de que el intercambio de ideas e información entre expertos podría ayudar a dejar más clara la situación en un futuro próximo. Esta reunión se consideró particularmente relevante para México, donde se ubica el área de origen, diversidad y domesticación del maíz y donde el teocintle se encuentra en estrecha asociación con el maíz en los campos de cultivo de algunas regiones agrícolas. Además, el maíz en México es la base alimentaria de una gran parte de la población.
La estructura del Foro y los talleres de discusión se definen, con modificaciones menores, en el cuadro de contenido de la presente Memoria. Los temas presentados y discutidos incluyeron: la distribución de teocintle en México, el estudio del flujo genético entre los diversos tipos de maíz y el teocintle, y la evaluación de riesgos probables ante una liberación de plantas transgénicas en su centro de origen. Las presentaciones de cada uno de los temas sirvieron como introducción para los grupos de discusión que se integraron con los científicos invitados al Foro. A cada grupo, que funcionó como un taller, se le asignó un moderador y un relator que presentarían a la reunión plenaria un informe y el resumen de la discusión generada con las preguntas específicas elaboradas por los organizadores, además de las cuestiones adicionales que surgieran durante los talleres. Más de 20 personas — principalmente científicos mexicanos de entidades públicas de investigación y enseñanza, junto con algunos especialistas extranjeros — participaron en los seminarios, mesas de discusión y en reuniones plenarias. Entre otras actividades, los investigadores se concentraron en dos objetivos principales: 1) establecer criterios científicos para la regulación apropiada del maíz transgénico, y 2) identificar algunas líneas de investigación en aspectos básicos de bioseguridad y análisis de riesgo derivado de la introducción del maíz transgénico al ambiente.

En contraposición con la visión establecida desde hace décadas en nuestro país, que soslaya la ag... more En contraposición con la visión establecida desde hace décadas en nuestro país, que soslaya la agricultura campesina y el potencial de las prácticas y tecnologías agroecológicas, se han implementado programas y proyectos en diferentes épocas y por diversas instituciones académicas o gubernamentales que apuntan al desarrollo de prácticas o tecnologías alternativas de tipo ecológico y sustentable. Tal es el caso de los proyectos de agricultura ecológica, orgánica y “tradicional” que se han llevado a cabo en diferentes estados del país y que en el Distrito Federal se han derivado de la Ley Ambiental (GODF, 2000), como la Norma Ambiental de Agricultura Ecológica (GODF, 2003). Junto a estos proyectos se han vinculado otras actividades de conservación in situ y ex situ de germoplasma, en particular de maíz, que tiene sus orígenes en la recolección de muestras de la diversidad de semilla nativa que se inició en México a mediados de la década de los treinta. En el Distrito Federal, aun cuando el área de cultivo de maíz es muy pequeña y se ha reducido aceleradamente desde hace varios años, todavía se encuentra una gran diversidad de maíces nativos en las delegaciones ubicadas en Suelo de Conservación1. Es en esas delegaciones en las que se concentra la mayor superficie para siembra de maíz y en donde se asienta la mayoría de los pueblos, llamados originarios, en los que sobrevive el maíz nativo de la región y en las que se ha encontrado el maíz propio de la Mesa Central del Altiplano de México (Morales y Serratos, 2009; Serratos, 2010), aunque no se habían tenido incentivos atractivos para cultivarlo y conservarlo. Este descubrimiento permite sugerir que la cultura y la tradición agrícola de esos pueblos han sido factores que han posibilitado la continuidad del maíz nativo en una zona asediada por presiones urbanas muy intensas.

Por ser una tecnología que se sustenta en diferentes áreas y disciplinas del conocimiento científ... more Por ser una tecnología que se sustenta en diferentes áreas y disciplinas del conocimiento científico, la biotecnología se ha integrado a éstas dando lugar a la generación de especialidades que influyen o cubren cada uno de estos campos como la biotecnología forestal, agrícola, pecuaria, marina y ambiental. En este esquema es notable que un área de la biotecnología que no ha sido desarrollada, en particular para un país con las singularidades de megadiversidad como México, es la agroecológica. La intención de este capítulo es avanzar en la definición de una nueva especialidad, la biotecnología agroecológica como una disciplina de apoyo para la agricultura sustentable.