Lészai Lehel | Babes-Bolyai University (original) (raw)

Papers by Lészai Lehel

Studia Univesitatis Babes-Bolyai, Theologia Reformata Transylvanica, 2016

The story of the disciples’ vocation shows several resemblances with the call stories of the Old ... more The story of the disciples’ vocation shows several resemblances with the call stories of the Old Testament prophets, especially the call of Elisha by Elijah (1Kgs 19,19-21). Karl Heinrich Rengstorf strongly refutes this view because he thinks that in the Old Testament did not exist a master-disciple relationship. Although many agreed, at this point he is out in this matter. Jesus’ disciples do not have to be on probation and live isolated as the followers of the Teacher of Righteousness in Qumran. Contrary to the latter, Jesus’ disciples received their calling primarily for service. Jesus taught the message and love of the Father, lived it in front of his disciples in order that they may continue his mission. The followers of philosophy and the disciples of the rabbis could surpass their masters, but for Jesus’ disciples it was enough to be like the One that called them.

From Movement to Inheritance. Hidden Assets from the Treasury of Hungarian Reformation, Aug 11, 2019

The goal and happiness of man, the unity with himself presumed the integration into the universal... more The goal and happiness of man, the unity with himself presumed the integration into the universal law (nomos) which obliged everyone to the same extent. The law was identical with the eternal godlike logos which ruled the cosmos. Stoicism, Epicureanism, and neo-Platonism were the most important of the Hellenistic philosophical trends. The ideal of the Stoics was the wise one who lived a natural life and was resigned to fate. The world has unchangeable laws and the disciples could only adjust to them. The peak of freedom and perfection is apatheia. Regarding the master-disciple relationship in Hellenism, the stress is not that much on the deficiency of the student’s knowledge but on the fact that the pupil starts the studying, which presumes the attainment of a certain knowledge and behavior; all this happens according to a certain, well defined plan. When somebody became disciple of a philosopher, very often great changes took place in his life. In some cases, he left his home, his family, and joined a small, closed community. In Hellenism the intellectual factor was a constituent part of the idea of discipleship to a great extent. In the Greek philosophy after a while the imitating of the master’s behavior and life-style took the place of actual studying. The rabbinic master disciple relationship developed from the Pharisaic system. In the New Testament ordinary men referred to the scribes as rabbis. Gradually the expression ‘rabbi’ became a technical term used for referring only to those who were ordained, which meant that they were authorized to judge in religious matters. The rabbi was expert only in the Torah. Ordination was practiced only in Palestine. Someone was worthy of the ‘rabbi’ title only after the ordination, while the others were addressed by their names. The ordination ceased in the 4th century after Christ. Beginning with that time the title ‘rabbi’ could be obtained by the approval of three other rabbis who agreed that the person in question had appropriate knowledge to explain the Law. The disciples learned not only in school from their master, but in everyday life too. The disciples did not receive only theoretical knowledge from the rabbi, but also took on their habits, their lifestyle, and even some of their typical gestures. The rabbi repeated the oral tradition many times, and the disciples had to memorize it without any mistakes, exactly. Jesus did not differ from the rabbis in the topics he addressed, but more in his radical approach, in the way he dealt with those questions. Contrary to the path of the rabbinic disciples, Jesus’ disciples did not have to become rabbis, because Jesus wanted to remain their exclusive, sole teacher. Jesus’ disciples did not have to become brilliant in theoretical knowledge, but they had to carry out practical duties.

Studia Universitatis Babes-Bolyai ,Theologia Reformata Transylvanica, 2016

One can find not too many passages in Matthew, which deal with the rela-tion between Christ, his ... more One can find not too many passages in Matthew, which deal with the rela-tion between Christ, his followers and the authorities. When Christ or the be-lievers came into contact with the authorities, usually they ended up perse-cuted, mistreated, jailed or executed. We will examine the encounter with Herod, John the Baptist, the first and second centurion, Pharisees, Herodians, Pilate, chief priests, Simon from Cyrene and Joseph of Arimathea. There are very rare instances when a representative of the authorities does not abuse of his status and acts as a normal human being. Jesus prepares his disciples for the bad treatment to come and assures them of His help. During the per-secution they have to react as the sons of the heavenly Father, they may re-joice in the suffering, knowing that the power of the authorities is finite, and the word of God is endless.

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Erdélyi Református Egyházkerület, 2007

Studia Universitatis Babeș-Bolyai Theologia Reformata Transylvanica, 2018

According to some scholars, the synoptic problem perhaps remains an eternal enigma, but this does... more According to some scholars, the synoptic problem perhaps remains an eternal enigma, but this does not affect the gospels’ interpretation. The fact is that modern research of the Scriptures raises more and more questions which cannot be answered at once. Today, even the ‘two-document’ hypothesis is regarded as antiquated. It is probable that the gospels were formed in parallel and they exercised mutual influence. The earliest versions were in circulation and thus played an important role in the formation of the other ones. The priority of Mark is verified by the following arguments: Mark’s material mostly appears in Matthew and Luke, the last two evangelists often omit Mark’s material, but even the omissions differ from each other; Matthew and Luke follow Mark in order; Mark seems to be more precise when he presents Jesus’ humanity, and he speaks more openly about the disciples’ lack of comprehension; Mark’s style seems to allude to the account of an eyewitness. Matthew and Luke differ in their genealogy but their materials correspond with each other from the point where Mark starts his gospel. After examining the language of Mark’s gospel, the congruence of content, wording and structure with Matthew’s and Luke’s gospel, on the basis of the above-mentioned arguments, we conclude that Mark’s priority is most likely. In connection with this, it has to be said that the ‘two-document’ hypothesis is probably the answer to the synoptic problem, adding to it that the process of permeation and borrowing was much more flexible in the formation time of the gospels, than it was thought earlier.

Studia Universitatis Babeș-Bolyai Theologia Reformata Transylvanica, 2017

John the Baptist and his disciples have an exceptional importance for our research, because chron... more John the Baptist and his disciples have an exceptional importance for our research, because chronologically and in other important ways, they are very close to Jesus and his disciples. Their chronological proximity is proven by their almost simultaneous conception, their activity, and finally their execution. John the Baptist prepared the way for Christ through his ministry. He gathered disciples and taught them to pray. He fasted together with his disciples. We have to leave open the question of his contact with Qumran and his relationship to the Essenes. In some respects there are similarities between him and Jesus, but there cannot be denied the differences, first of all regarding the ascetic way of life. Because of his uncompromising preaching and the upholding of the banner of truth he had to suffer a violent death. Through his death he becomes a part of the prophet’s fatal destiny.

Research and Science Today, 2015

Constantinople supported approaches of Romanians on the rights of Aromanians in Macedonia, approa... more Constantinople supported approaches of Romanians on the rights of Aromanians in Macedonia, approaches that were successful in 1905 20. During this period, Russian diplomacy intensified its efforts to reduce German influence in Bucharest and also to attract Romania at side of the Entente its actions coming mostly from Russia and France. This became the reason of mutual visits: Predeal meeting in September 1907 between King Carol I and also senior officials of the Russian imperial family around; as well as the visit the Crown Prince of Romania, Ferdinand, at Petersburg in March 1908 21. Russian interest in the attitude of a neighboring country with an important strategic position was natural. Actions which aimed vicinity of Romania to Russia became more intense after Serghei Sazanov took over the leadership of Russia diplomacy in 1910 22. The new Foreign Minister established good relations with the Romanian minister in St. Petersburg, Russian representative in Bucharest was given instructions to maintain relations of friendship, but discrete, with the Romanian government, demanding the same behavior and the representatives of other European capitals. There were also visits and cultural events. French representative in Bucharest, Blondel said in July 1910 that "Russia put everything in motion to prepare a positive future in Romania" 23. Also, other partners in the Entente expressed their willingness to establish closer relations and even cooperation with Romania 24. Important steps in this direction were made in Bucharest with the arrival of a British military mission in 1910 and also with the visit of important political figures from France in 1912 25. French diplomacy was trying to gain ground in Romania, to regain lost positions mostly because of their own attitudes. Blondel did not stop repeating that "if the influence of Germany daily gain ground, then the fault is our compatriots who have abandoned the fight in terms of trade and have been able to take advantage of the Romanian friendly feelings towards our country" 26. Moreover, the French action was facilitated by some Romanian diplomats. Named in Paris in 1908 Alexandru Lahovary endeavored to show that it was necessary to alter the image of Romania completely subservient to the Triple Alliance. Although the external situation was relatively favorable for the growth of French-Russian influence, it was countered by a domestic event. In January 1911, the government was taken over by conservatives, with Petre P. Carp as prime minister and Titu Maiorescu leading Ministry of Foreign Affairs, both advocating a policy of alliance with the Central Powers. Petre P. Carp had said this very clearly, since 1909. Consequently, Romanian-Russian relations had experienced a period of "lassitude" according to Giers's phrase. He reckoned that it will be extended as long as both (P. P. Carp

Studia Universitatis Babeș-Bolyai Theologia Reformata Transylvanica, 2020

Survey of the Meanings and Occurrences of the Terminology of Reconciliation in the New Testament.... more Survey of the Meanings and Occurrences of the Terminology of Reconciliation in the New Testament. Reconciliation may happen on three levels. The first one is to be reconciled with God. In this matter, God himself helps us, who took the first steps towards us after we had left him and had turned our back to him. He sent his only Son, who gave up his life in order to reconcile us with his Father, to restore the broken connection, relationship, and peace. The second level is to be reconciled with friends. In this matter, it could help us a great matter, if one was reconciled with the Creator. To be reconciled with God means a task for human beings, as they have to be at peace with each other. Reconciliation with others may happen outwards and inwards. It happens outwards, when the relationship is handled with God, with the other, and with oneself. We speak about inwards reconciliation, when it happens between husband and wife, between friends (relatives, neighbors), between principal and subaltern, or enemies. The third level is to be reconciled with oneself. This may be the hardest task, because one has to fight oneself: you have difficult issues to let go, you have to be at peace with yourself in order to serve God and your neighbor as your Creator requires from you.

Studia Theologia Reformata Transylvanica, 2016

One can find not too many passages in Matthew, which deal with the relation between Christ, his f... more One can find not too many passages in Matthew, which deal with the relation between Christ, his followers and the authorities. When Christ or the be-lievers came into contact with the authorities, usually they ended up persecuted, mistreated, jailed or executed. We will examine the encounter with Herod, John the Baptist, the first and second centurion, Pharisees, Herodians, Pilate, chief priests, Simon from Cyrene and Joseph of Arimathea. There are very rare instances when a representative of the authorities does not abuse of his status and acts as a normal human being. Jesus prepares his disciples for the bad treatment to come and assures them of His help. During the persecution they have to react as the sons of the heavenly Father, they may rejoice in the suffering, knowing that the power of the authorities is finite, and the word of God is endless.

Studia Universitatis Babeș-Bolyai Theologia Reformata Transylvanica, 2018

According to some scholars, the synoptic problem perhaps remains an eternal enigma, but this does... more According to some scholars, the synoptic problem perhaps remains an eternal enigma, but this does not affect the gospels’ interpretation. The fact is that modern research of the Scriptures raises more and more questions which cannot be answered at once. Today, even the ‘two-document’ hypothesis is regarded as antiquated. It is probable that the gospels were formed in parallel and they exercised mutual influence. The earliest versions were in circulation and thus played an important role in the formation of the other ones. The priority of Mark is verified by the following arguments: Mark’s material mostly appears in Matthew and Luke, the last two evangelists often omit Mark’s material, but even the omissions differ from each other; Matthew and Luke follow Mark in order; Mark seems to be more precise when he presents Jesus’ humanity, and he speaks more openly about the disciples’ lack of comprehension; Mark’s style seems to allude to the account of an eyewitness. Matthew and Luke differ in their genealogy but their materials correspond with each other from the point where Mark starts his gospel. After examining the language of Mark’s gospel, the congruence of content, wording and structure with Matthew’s and Luke’s gospel, on the basis of the above-mentioned arguments, we conclude that Mark’s priority is most likely. In connection with this, it has to be said that the ‘two-document’ hypothesis is probably the answer to the synoptic problem, adding to it that the process of permeation and borrowing was much more flexible in the formation time of the gospels, than it was thought earlier.

A tudás ösvényén II., 2020

A qumráni közösség rendkívül zárt volt, és az elzárkózó, félrevonuló jellege rányomta mindenre bé... more A qumráni közösség rendkívül zárt volt, és az elzárkózó, félrevonuló jellege rányomta mindenre bélyegét, így a tanító és tanítvány viszonyára is. Ez az ezoterikus vonás nyilvánul meg azokban a kemény tilalmakban, melyek szerint – ahogy erről Josephus Flavius az esszénusokkal kapcsolatban tudósít – még halálos fenyegetés esetén sem szabad idegeneknek, be nem avatottaknak felfedni a szekta „titkait”, azaz tanait, továbbá azokban az előírásokban, ahol az áll, hogy titokként kell őrizni a szekta műveit, az angyalok neveit stb.
Nehezen megfejthető, hogy ilyen mérvű zártság, szigorúság és lemondás ellenére miért volt mégis vonzó egyesek számára a közösséghez csatlakozás gondolata. Mégis feltételezhető, hogy az intertestamentális korban is léteztek olyanok, akik nehéz körülményeik, gondjaik, kiábrándultságuk vagy kielégítetlenül maradt, fokozott lelki igényeik miatt életidegenek maradtak a korabeli társadalomban, nem találták helyüket a vallásos életben, és menekülni vágytak egy ideálisnak vélt közösségbe, ahol minden külső hatástól teljesen elszigetelten vegetáltak, ahol az élet a legapróbb vonatkozásaiban is szabályozva volt és csak vakon kellett engedelmeskedni.
A qumráni közösségbe való jelentkezés azzal kezdődött, hogy a „felügyelők” és az „oktatók” – gondolhatunk itt a saját terminológiánk szerint a tanítóra – szóban fejtették ki a novíciusnak a közösség titkos tanításának alapjait. Erre a „titkosságra” utalnak a fennmaradt kriptografikus szövegek is. A jelentkezőnek vakon kellett hinnie és engedelmeskednie az Igazság Tanítójának, mert csak így kerülhette el az eszkatológikus Ítélet Házát. A Tanító tanításába vetett hit jelentette a boldogságot és az üdvösséget az igazság követői számára.
A Szentírásban található tanító–tanítvány viszonyhoz mérve egy teljesen idegen kép tárul elénk, amikor a qumráni iratok tükrében vizsgáljuk ugyanezt a kérdést. Rögtön az elején riasztó az a rideg, merev hierarchia, amely a qumráni közösségben uralkodott. Mindenki a közösségben eltöltött ideje alapján foglalt helyet, és töltött be bizonyos tisztségeket Qumránban. Az is megdöbbentő, hogy nem létezett elhívás, vocatio a tanító részéről, hanem akárki saját döntése alapján csatlakozhatott a tanítványi körhöz. Az újoncok csak bizonyos, évekig tartó próbaidő sikeres letöltése után váltak a közösség teljes jogú tagjaivá.
Az is egészen furcsa, hogy a tanítók váltogatták egymást, tehát nem alakulhatott ki egy bizalmas, bensőséges viszony a tanító és a tanítvány között. Az is elmondható ezek után, hogy nem a tanítón, hanem a tanon volt a hangsúly. Nem lehetett egyszerűen odamenni a tanítóhoz, és zaklatni őt mindenféle személyes kérdéssel. Kötelezően és tisztelettudóan kellett felnézni rá, mint akinek hivatalból kijár az engedelmesség, mivel sokkal régebben volt jelen a közösségben, mint a tanítványok. Az Ószövetségben és az Újszövetségben a prófétához vagy a rabbihoz csatlakoztak a tanítványok, együtt éltek vele, és a közös élet során folyt az elméleti és gyakorlati oktatás. Az együttélés és együtt járás fontos eleme volt a tanító–tanítvány viszonynak. Qumránban ugyan együtt éltek és dolgoztak az emberek, de a tanítás tízes csoportokban folyt, miközben a tanítók váltogatták egymást.
A közösség szabálya azt is előírta, hogy a tanítványoknak tanulmányozással kellett eltölteniük az éjszakák egyharmadát. A legvalószínűbb feltételezések szerint a Szentírást tanulmányozták. Volt tehát közösen eltöltött idő is, amikor kis csoportokban a tanító oktatta a tanítványokat, és ehhez járult az egyéni tanulmányozás. A virrasztással eltöltött idő a Szentírásban való elmélyedést és az önsanyargatást szolgálta. Azért beszélhetünk önsanyargatásról, mert az étkezés esetében is jól meghatározott adagokról beszélnek az iratok, és ezek a fejadagok is meglehetősen egyszerűek voltak, és nélkülözték a változatosságot.
Nem létezett vocatio a közösséghez való csatlakozás alkalmával, és nem létezett misszió a tanok megismerése után. Mindez magyarázható a szekta teljes zártságával és kizárólagosságával. Az emberiség tagjait nagyon könnyen kategorizálták: léteztek a világosság fiai a közösségen belül, és a sötétség fiai a közösségen kívül. A gonoszoknak egyértelműen el kellett veszniük, ezért nem is imádkoztak értük, nem is próbálták őket megtéríteni, jobb belátásra bírni. Éppen ezért számukra végtelenül egyszerű volt a különbségtétel és az ítélet kérdése. Várták a messiást, aki számukra életet fog hozni, míg mindenki más el fog pusztulni. A be- és elzárkózott szektás jelleg teljes mértékben illett rájuk, és szilárdan meg voltak győződve, hogy ez az egyetlen helyes út.
A tanító és tanítvány viszonya Qumránban teljesen esetleges volt. A tanító személye nem volt fontos, nem számított annyira, mint példamutató vagy követendő minta, jóllehet előírásszerűen kellett tisztelni őt. A személyes kapcsolat helyett a Szentírás és a közösség iratai bírtak normatív jelleggel a tanítványok életére. Az iratokat kellett tanulmányozni és az előírt szabályoknak kellett hajszálpontosan engedelmeskedni az üdvösség reményében.

Studia Universitatis Babeş-Bolyai, Theologia Reformata Transylvanica, 2017

John the Baptist and his disciples have an exceptional importance for our research, because chron... more John the Baptist and his disciples have an exceptional importance for our research, because chronologically and in other important ways, they are very close to Jesus and his disciples. Their chronological proximity is proven by their almost simultaneous conception, their activity, and finally their execution. John the Baptist prepared the way for Christ through his ministry. He gathered disciples and taught them to pray. He fasted together with his disciples. We have to leave open the question of his contact with Qumran and his relationship to the Essenes. In some respects there are similarities between him and Jesus, but there cannot be denied the differences, first of all regarding the ascetic way of life. Because of his uncompromising preaching and the upholding of the banner of truth he had to suffer a violent death. Through his death he becomes a part of the prophet’s fatal destiny.

Biblical interpretation. Eras, Methods, Contexts. Bibliaértelmezés. Korok, módszerek, kontextusok. , 2020

The commission is due to the Father who tried to reconcile the world with himself by sending his ... more The commission is due to the Father who tried to reconcile the world with himself by sending his Son to the mankind which became alienated from him. Jesus’ calling is not an invitation to a hermetically isolated community for a few elected Jews, who will later enjoy the blessings of their master’s proximity and the advantages of the security of his presence. Jesus’ calling viewed the commission. Analyzing the mode of the disciples’ commission we can discover some similarities with the commission of the prophets by God in the Old Testament. In the Old Testament we can see that the majority of the prophets did not desire their election for the commission. Their encounter with God (Is 6:1–13) and their appointment were usually unexpected events (1 Sam 3:1–14), against what some of them protested (Jer 1:6), and/or tried to find a way out (Ex 3:11; 4:1.10.13). The disciples did not fight Jesus’ call but they did not seek for it either. God entrusted the Old Testament prophets with a message which they experienced and had to deliver and which defined their lives. The service lead to inner tension and exterior suffering. They had to deliver the message they were entrusted with succinctly and intelligibly so God will not require the blood of the wicked at their hands (Ezek 33:7–9).
When Jesus called them he promised that he will make them become fishers of men (Mk 1:17). He starts to keep his promise when he first sends them out. During his service he was moved with compassion for the people who were weary and like sheep not having a shepherd (Mt 9:36, borrowed by Matthew from Mk 6:34). Therefore he sends his disciples to harvest. The way he carried out his ministry of preaching and healing with the authority he received from God he sends his disciples to drive out demons and to heal diseases giving them the same authority and power. In spite of this it was recorded about the disciples that on one occasion they could not heal the son of a father who came to them (Mk 9:17–18), although they received authority to do so. In that case their failure was due to their unbelief, and to the lack of prayer and fasting.
After the investment with authority and power follows the sending out in pairs (Mk 6:7). The sending out in pairs reminds us of the situation in the Old Testament, when the testimony was valid only if two (or three) witnesses testified alike (Num 35:30; Deut 17:6; 19:15). The calling of the first four disciples already shows that Jesus calls them two by two (Mk 1:16–20). In some lists of names the Twelve (except Judas, the son of James in Acts 1:13) are mentioned in pairs, which suggests that they completed their service in pairs (Mt 10:2–4; Acts 1:13). When they are sent out they go in pairs and this is also the case of the seventy(-two) disciples’ mission in Luke’s gospel (Lk 10:1). The sending by twos served on the one hand for the enforcement of the message’s validity and on the other hand for the security of the disciples who this way could protect and help each other more easily.
Jesus sends them out two by two but in spite of the spiritual equipment they have to complete their commission in physical defenselessness. This incomplete equipment also referred to Jesus’ poverty. In all the three synoptic gospels it is recorded that Jesus forbade his disciples to take bread, bag, money, two tunics, sandals and a staff with them (Mk 6:8–9; Mt 10:9–10; Lk 9:3; 10:4; cf. 22:35). Only in Mark’s gospel it can be read that Jesus allowed his disciples to take a staff and sandals. There were several attempts to explain the reasons that originated the “Spartan prohibition.” According to Gerd Teißen this prohibition avoids that the disciples would be considered beggars. All in all we could say that the reason for the disciples’ incomplete equipment is on the one hand that they depend on Jesus, and on the other hand the urgency of the gospel’s proclamation. The forbidden items from Lk 10:4 occur in the same sequence in Lk 22:35. Starting with Jesus’ crucifixion there is a new situation, when Israel consciously rejects the gospel so the purse and bag can be used. These are still the most indispensable basics of life. The fact that they have sell their garments in order to buy swords, hints at the threatening gravity of this new situation.

ZSOLTÁROK, HIMNUSZOK, IMÁDSÁGOK, 2009

This is the most intimate prayer of Jesus in Mark’s Gospel. He prayed this right before his captu... more This is the most intimate prayer of Jesus in Mark’s Gospel. He prayed this right before his captured and there one may sense the struggle of the (divine) man confronting death. In Mk 14,18 he speaks about his resurrection, but he is not facing death easily. He enters the garden of Gethsemane (Craig: “oil-press”, Cranfield: “press of oil”). Nine disciples have to sit down, and three have to accompany him. Jesus gave new names only to these three disciples, and they wanted to suffer and die with him; they are witnesses (France). He is troubled facing death, but this is not distrust. This story is not made up by the disciples; otherwise it would lack Jesus’ fear (Hooker), and the fact that they fall asleep. Jesus is stretched to the limit (peri,lupoj), he needs the companionship of his disciples (grhgore,w), Schweizer: “watch” is mentioned in contrast with their sleeping. Jesus goes mikro,n away: a. he needs the closeness of his disciples, b. he needs to be alone with his Father. He is still in hearing range (Lk 22,41 w`sei. li,qou bolh.n). Gundry: it was a custom to pray aloud even alone. The problem: who recorded his prayer? a. the disciples, b. Jesus told them afterwards, c. the young man (Burkitt, Saunderson). The eiv dunato,n evstin is not disbelief, but he asks for the divine plan to be changed. The “hour” in apocalyptic literature is connected with the end and with the judgement (Dan 11,40.45 LXX). Jesus calls God Abba in a very intimate way, that was not customary in Hebrew prayer; he knew that he was the Son of God. Derrett alludes to the case of Isaac, when God found another solution for him (Gen 22,1–19). Here comes the heart of this pericope and prayer: he wants to escape death, but for him the will of his Father is more important.
Jesus returns to his disciples, but they sleep. He was away one hour (Evans). Reprobation: Simon, and not Peter, who was ready to die for him, now sleeps. Jesus returns three times, Peter sleeps three times, and then denies him three times. Jesus remains more and more alone.
It continues his reproach, this time to all three of them. There is a new command for watching (which here means more than just keeping awake) and proseu,comai is added. The prayer is not for escaping the temptation, rather for standing up to the test.
Jesus goes to pray for a second time, not too far from them. He needed the support of his disciples, but they failed. Lk 22,43: an angel from heaven strengthened him. He gives an example to pray. He prayed the same thing but not with the same words (Swete, Hendriksen). The issue was the same, that He might understand God’s will (v. 36). Jesus returns for the second time, and the disciples sleep. He is lonely. Peter does not know what to answer (he was already in this situation – Mk 9,6). The rabbinic rule says: if someone falls asleep and cannot answer a question, the ceremony is over (Mann). Jesus expected from his disciples that they watch and pray with him (Tertullian).
There is no mention that Jesus goes away, prays and the disciples sleep for the third time. He tells them: kaqeu,dw and avnapau,w. Morgan: this is not ironic, but full of love. The “now” may sustain this view. The Codex Bobbiensis has restructured vv. 41–42, inserting “and after a little while he aroused them” before “the hour has come” (Metzger). They don’t have to stay awake and pray anymore; this is a new situation. Now Jesus knows what God’s will is, and he is ready to die (Focant). Maybe he left his disciples to rest for a while, but then saw the approaching torches and he commands them to get up. They will join the other eight disciples before Judas will arrive. He wakes them up not to flee, but to go to meet his fate. He knows exactly what will happen.

Religious Education within the Context of the Common European Home, 2004

Meeting God in the Other Studies in Religious Encounter and Pluralism in honour of Dorin Oancea on the occasion of his 70 th birthday edited by, 2019

Initially, the Woman at the Well saw Jesus as an enemy, a Jew. Later, she asks if her interlocuto... more Initially, the Woman at the Well saw Jesus as an enemy, a Jew. Later, she asks if her interlocutor is greater than their ancestor, Jacob. She then calls him “Sir” and acknowledges that he is a prophet but she still entertains some doubts as to whether or not he is the Christ (mēti used here by her is an interrogative particle in questions expecting a negative answer). Nonetheless she gives her testimony regarding him, and at the end we assume that she acknowledges him as her Saviour together with her fellow Samaritans. Her encounter with Jesus passes through different stages and phases. While Nicodemus and Jesus’ disciples often misunderstand or did not understand Jesus at all, this woman draws closer and closer to Jesus until she becomes a true believer and missionary. Two very different persons meet at the well, representing different nations, religions, genders, backgrounds and cultures, although they share the same ancestors and worship God. Jesus’ tender approach and openness makes possible not just a lengthy discussion between them, but an existential encounter which definitively transforms the woman’s life and makes her a genuine believer and Christ’s agent in his mission to the Samaritans.

RESEARCH AND SCIENCE TODAY este o revistă ştiinţifică, bianuală, fondată în anul 2011 şi publicat... more RESEARCH AND SCIENCE TODAY este o revistă ştiinţifică, bianuală, fondată în anul 2011 şi publicată în colaborare cu Universitatea „Constantin Brâncuşi” din Târgu-Jiu. Revista reprezintă un suport de informare în care se regăsesc publicate articole de sinteză şi rezultatele diferitelor cercetări ştiinţifice realizate de către persoane aflate în sfera educaţionalului.

Oferim posibilitatea autorilor de a crea şi/sau de a-şi perfecţiona abilităţile de a scrie articole ştiinţifice. Astfel, fiecare aparţie (două numere pe an şi cel puţin două suplimente) va conţine articole elaborate, din orice domeniu, de către persoane din ţară şi străinătate

Scopul revistei Research and Science Today este acela de a transmite informaţia către studenţi, masteranzi, doctoranzi dar şi către cadrele didactice şi cercetătorii ştiinţifici, iar arealul domeniilor pe care revistă îl cuprinde este nelimitat având în vedere profilul multidisciplinar pe care aceasta îl are.

În privinţa vizibilităţii, naţionale şi internaţionale, de care revista se bucură, aceasta se regăseşte indexată în peste 20 de baze de date internaționale (BDI) şi este prezentă în peste 100 de biblioteci şi cataloage online, astfel oricine poate accesa foarte uşor articolele ce sunt publicate în fiecare număr, prin intermediul bazelor de date sau direct de pe site.

Books by Lészai Lehel

From Movement to Inheritance, 2019

The goal and happiness of man, the unity with himself presumed the integration into the universal... more The goal and happiness of man, the unity with himself presumed the integration into the universal law (nomos) which obliged everyone to the same extent. The law was identical with the eternal godlike logos which ruled the cosmos. Stoicism, Epicureanism, and neo-Platonism were the most important of the Hellenistic philosophical trends. The ideal of the Stoics was the wise one who lived a natural life and was resigned to fate. The world has unchangeable laws and the disciples could only adjust to them. The peak of freedom and perfection is apatheia. Regarding the master-disciple relationship in Hellenism, the stress is not that much on the deficiency of the student’s knowledge but on the fact that the pupil starts the studying, which presumes the attainment of a certain knowledge and behavior; all this happens according to a certain, well defined plan. When somebody became disciple of a philosopher, very often great changes took place in his life. In some cases, he left his home, his family, and joined a small, closed community. In Hellenism the intellectual factor was a constituent part of the idea of discipleship to a great extent. In the Greek philosophy after a while the imitating of the master’s behavior and life-style took the place of actual studying. The rabbinic master-disciple relationship developed from the Pharisaic system. In the New Testament ordinary men referred to the scribes as rabbis. Gradually the expression ‘rabbi’ became a technical term used for referring only to those who were ordained, which meant that they were authorized to judge in religious matters. The rabbi was expert only in the Torah. Ordination was practiced only in Palestine. Someone was worthy of the ‘rabbi’ title only after the ordination, while the others were addressed by their names. The ordination ceased in the 4th century after Christ. Beginning with that time the title ‘rabbi’ could be obtained by the approval of three other rabbis who agreed that the person in question had appropriate knowledge to explain the Law. The disciples learned not only in school from their master, but in everyday life too. The disciples did not receive only theoretical knowledge from the rabbi, but also took on their habits, their lifestyle, and even some of their typical gestures. The rabbi repeated the oral tradition many times, and the disciples had to memorize it without any mistakes, exactly. Jesus did not differ from the rabbis in the topics he addressed, but more in his radical approach, in the way he dealt with those questions. Contrary to the path of the rabbinic disciples, Jesus’ disciples did not have to become rabbis, because Jesus wanted to remain their exclusive, sole teacher. Jesus’ disciples did not have to become brilliant in theoretical knowledge, but they had to carry out practical duties..

Conference Presentations by Lészai Lehel

Studia Univesitatis Babes-Bolyai, Theologia Reformata Transylvanica, 2016

The story of the disciples’ vocation shows several resemblances with the call stories of the Old ... more The story of the disciples’ vocation shows several resemblances with the call stories of the Old Testament prophets, especially the call of Elisha by Elijah (1Kgs 19,19-21). Karl Heinrich Rengstorf strongly refutes this view because he thinks that in the Old Testament did not exist a master-disciple relationship. Although many agreed, at this point he is out in this matter. Jesus’ disciples do not have to be on probation and live isolated as the followers of the Teacher of Righteousness in Qumran. Contrary to the latter, Jesus’ disciples received their calling primarily for service. Jesus taught the message and love of the Father, lived it in front of his disciples in order that they may continue his mission. The followers of philosophy and the disciples of the rabbis could surpass their masters, but for Jesus’ disciples it was enough to be like the One that called them.

Studia Univesitatis Babes-Bolyai, Theologia Reformata Transylvanica, 2016

The story of the disciples’ vocation shows several resemblances with the call stories of the Old ... more The story of the disciples’ vocation shows several resemblances with the call stories of the Old Testament prophets, especially the call of Elisha by Elijah (1Kgs 19,19-21). Karl Heinrich Rengstorf strongly refutes this view because he thinks that in the Old Testament did not exist a master-disciple relationship. Although many agreed, at this point he is out in this matter. Jesus’ disciples do not have to be on probation and live isolated as the followers of the Teacher of Righteousness in Qumran. Contrary to the latter, Jesus’ disciples received their calling primarily for service. Jesus taught the message and love of the Father, lived it in front of his disciples in order that they may continue his mission. The followers of philosophy and the disciples of the rabbis could surpass their masters, but for Jesus’ disciples it was enough to be like the One that called them.

From Movement to Inheritance. Hidden Assets from the Treasury of Hungarian Reformation, Aug 11, 2019

The goal and happiness of man, the unity with himself presumed the integration into the universal... more The goal and happiness of man, the unity with himself presumed the integration into the universal law (nomos) which obliged everyone to the same extent. The law was identical with the eternal godlike logos which ruled the cosmos. Stoicism, Epicureanism, and neo-Platonism were the most important of the Hellenistic philosophical trends. The ideal of the Stoics was the wise one who lived a natural life and was resigned to fate. The world has unchangeable laws and the disciples could only adjust to them. The peak of freedom and perfection is apatheia. Regarding the master-disciple relationship in Hellenism, the stress is not that much on the deficiency of the student’s knowledge but on the fact that the pupil starts the studying, which presumes the attainment of a certain knowledge and behavior; all this happens according to a certain, well defined plan. When somebody became disciple of a philosopher, very often great changes took place in his life. In some cases, he left his home, his family, and joined a small, closed community. In Hellenism the intellectual factor was a constituent part of the idea of discipleship to a great extent. In the Greek philosophy after a while the imitating of the master’s behavior and life-style took the place of actual studying. The rabbinic master disciple relationship developed from the Pharisaic system. In the New Testament ordinary men referred to the scribes as rabbis. Gradually the expression ‘rabbi’ became a technical term used for referring only to those who were ordained, which meant that they were authorized to judge in religious matters. The rabbi was expert only in the Torah. Ordination was practiced only in Palestine. Someone was worthy of the ‘rabbi’ title only after the ordination, while the others were addressed by their names. The ordination ceased in the 4th century after Christ. Beginning with that time the title ‘rabbi’ could be obtained by the approval of three other rabbis who agreed that the person in question had appropriate knowledge to explain the Law. The disciples learned not only in school from their master, but in everyday life too. The disciples did not receive only theoretical knowledge from the rabbi, but also took on their habits, their lifestyle, and even some of their typical gestures. The rabbi repeated the oral tradition many times, and the disciples had to memorize it without any mistakes, exactly. Jesus did not differ from the rabbis in the topics he addressed, but more in his radical approach, in the way he dealt with those questions. Contrary to the path of the rabbinic disciples, Jesus’ disciples did not have to become rabbis, because Jesus wanted to remain their exclusive, sole teacher. Jesus’ disciples did not have to become brilliant in theoretical knowledge, but they had to carry out practical duties.

Studia Universitatis Babes-Bolyai ,Theologia Reformata Transylvanica, 2016

One can find not too many passages in Matthew, which deal with the rela-tion between Christ, his ... more One can find not too many passages in Matthew, which deal with the rela-tion between Christ, his followers and the authorities. When Christ or the be-lievers came into contact with the authorities, usually they ended up perse-cuted, mistreated, jailed or executed. We will examine the encounter with Herod, John the Baptist, the first and second centurion, Pharisees, Herodians, Pilate, chief priests, Simon from Cyrene and Joseph of Arimathea. There are very rare instances when a representative of the authorities does not abuse of his status and acts as a normal human being. Jesus prepares his disciples for the bad treatment to come and assures them of His help. During the per-secution they have to react as the sons of the heavenly Father, they may re-joice in the suffering, knowing that the power of the authorities is finite, and the word of God is endless.

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Erdélyi Református Egyházkerület, 2007

Studia Universitatis Babeș-Bolyai Theologia Reformata Transylvanica, 2018

According to some scholars, the synoptic problem perhaps remains an eternal enigma, but this does... more According to some scholars, the synoptic problem perhaps remains an eternal enigma, but this does not affect the gospels’ interpretation. The fact is that modern research of the Scriptures raises more and more questions which cannot be answered at once. Today, even the ‘two-document’ hypothesis is regarded as antiquated. It is probable that the gospels were formed in parallel and they exercised mutual influence. The earliest versions were in circulation and thus played an important role in the formation of the other ones. The priority of Mark is verified by the following arguments: Mark’s material mostly appears in Matthew and Luke, the last two evangelists often omit Mark’s material, but even the omissions differ from each other; Matthew and Luke follow Mark in order; Mark seems to be more precise when he presents Jesus’ humanity, and he speaks more openly about the disciples’ lack of comprehension; Mark’s style seems to allude to the account of an eyewitness. Matthew and Luke differ in their genealogy but their materials correspond with each other from the point where Mark starts his gospel. After examining the language of Mark’s gospel, the congruence of content, wording and structure with Matthew’s and Luke’s gospel, on the basis of the above-mentioned arguments, we conclude that Mark’s priority is most likely. In connection with this, it has to be said that the ‘two-document’ hypothesis is probably the answer to the synoptic problem, adding to it that the process of permeation and borrowing was much more flexible in the formation time of the gospels, than it was thought earlier.

Studia Universitatis Babeș-Bolyai Theologia Reformata Transylvanica, 2017

John the Baptist and his disciples have an exceptional importance for our research, because chron... more John the Baptist and his disciples have an exceptional importance for our research, because chronologically and in other important ways, they are very close to Jesus and his disciples. Their chronological proximity is proven by their almost simultaneous conception, their activity, and finally their execution. John the Baptist prepared the way for Christ through his ministry. He gathered disciples and taught them to pray. He fasted together with his disciples. We have to leave open the question of his contact with Qumran and his relationship to the Essenes. In some respects there are similarities between him and Jesus, but there cannot be denied the differences, first of all regarding the ascetic way of life. Because of his uncompromising preaching and the upholding of the banner of truth he had to suffer a violent death. Through his death he becomes a part of the prophet’s fatal destiny.

Research and Science Today, 2015

Constantinople supported approaches of Romanians on the rights of Aromanians in Macedonia, approa... more Constantinople supported approaches of Romanians on the rights of Aromanians in Macedonia, approaches that were successful in 1905 20. During this period, Russian diplomacy intensified its efforts to reduce German influence in Bucharest and also to attract Romania at side of the Entente its actions coming mostly from Russia and France. This became the reason of mutual visits: Predeal meeting in September 1907 between King Carol I and also senior officials of the Russian imperial family around; as well as the visit the Crown Prince of Romania, Ferdinand, at Petersburg in March 1908 21. Russian interest in the attitude of a neighboring country with an important strategic position was natural. Actions which aimed vicinity of Romania to Russia became more intense after Serghei Sazanov took over the leadership of Russia diplomacy in 1910 22. The new Foreign Minister established good relations with the Romanian minister in St. Petersburg, Russian representative in Bucharest was given instructions to maintain relations of friendship, but discrete, with the Romanian government, demanding the same behavior and the representatives of other European capitals. There were also visits and cultural events. French representative in Bucharest, Blondel said in July 1910 that "Russia put everything in motion to prepare a positive future in Romania" 23. Also, other partners in the Entente expressed their willingness to establish closer relations and even cooperation with Romania 24. Important steps in this direction were made in Bucharest with the arrival of a British military mission in 1910 and also with the visit of important political figures from France in 1912 25. French diplomacy was trying to gain ground in Romania, to regain lost positions mostly because of their own attitudes. Blondel did not stop repeating that "if the influence of Germany daily gain ground, then the fault is our compatriots who have abandoned the fight in terms of trade and have been able to take advantage of the Romanian friendly feelings towards our country" 26. Moreover, the French action was facilitated by some Romanian diplomats. Named in Paris in 1908 Alexandru Lahovary endeavored to show that it was necessary to alter the image of Romania completely subservient to the Triple Alliance. Although the external situation was relatively favorable for the growth of French-Russian influence, it was countered by a domestic event. In January 1911, the government was taken over by conservatives, with Petre P. Carp as prime minister and Titu Maiorescu leading Ministry of Foreign Affairs, both advocating a policy of alliance with the Central Powers. Petre P. Carp had said this very clearly, since 1909. Consequently, Romanian-Russian relations had experienced a period of "lassitude" according to Giers's phrase. He reckoned that it will be extended as long as both (P. P. Carp

Studia Universitatis Babeș-Bolyai Theologia Reformata Transylvanica, 2020

Survey of the Meanings and Occurrences of the Terminology of Reconciliation in the New Testament.... more Survey of the Meanings and Occurrences of the Terminology of Reconciliation in the New Testament. Reconciliation may happen on three levels. The first one is to be reconciled with God. In this matter, God himself helps us, who took the first steps towards us after we had left him and had turned our back to him. He sent his only Son, who gave up his life in order to reconcile us with his Father, to restore the broken connection, relationship, and peace. The second level is to be reconciled with friends. In this matter, it could help us a great matter, if one was reconciled with the Creator. To be reconciled with God means a task for human beings, as they have to be at peace with each other. Reconciliation with others may happen outwards and inwards. It happens outwards, when the relationship is handled with God, with the other, and with oneself. We speak about inwards reconciliation, when it happens between husband and wife, between friends (relatives, neighbors), between principal and subaltern, or enemies. The third level is to be reconciled with oneself. This may be the hardest task, because one has to fight oneself: you have difficult issues to let go, you have to be at peace with yourself in order to serve God and your neighbor as your Creator requires from you.

Studia Theologia Reformata Transylvanica, 2016

One can find not too many passages in Matthew, which deal with the relation between Christ, his f... more One can find not too many passages in Matthew, which deal with the relation between Christ, his followers and the authorities. When Christ or the be-lievers came into contact with the authorities, usually they ended up persecuted, mistreated, jailed or executed. We will examine the encounter with Herod, John the Baptist, the first and second centurion, Pharisees, Herodians, Pilate, chief priests, Simon from Cyrene and Joseph of Arimathea. There are very rare instances when a representative of the authorities does not abuse of his status and acts as a normal human being. Jesus prepares his disciples for the bad treatment to come and assures them of His help. During the persecution they have to react as the sons of the heavenly Father, they may rejoice in the suffering, knowing that the power of the authorities is finite, and the word of God is endless.

Studia Universitatis Babeș-Bolyai Theologia Reformata Transylvanica, 2018

According to some scholars, the synoptic problem perhaps remains an eternal enigma, but this does... more According to some scholars, the synoptic problem perhaps remains an eternal enigma, but this does not affect the gospels’ interpretation. The fact is that modern research of the Scriptures raises more and more questions which cannot be answered at once. Today, even the ‘two-document’ hypothesis is regarded as antiquated. It is probable that the gospels were formed in parallel and they exercised mutual influence. The earliest versions were in circulation and thus played an important role in the formation of the other ones. The priority of Mark is verified by the following arguments: Mark’s material mostly appears in Matthew and Luke, the last two evangelists often omit Mark’s material, but even the omissions differ from each other; Matthew and Luke follow Mark in order; Mark seems to be more precise when he presents Jesus’ humanity, and he speaks more openly about the disciples’ lack of comprehension; Mark’s style seems to allude to the account of an eyewitness. Matthew and Luke differ in their genealogy but their materials correspond with each other from the point where Mark starts his gospel. After examining the language of Mark’s gospel, the congruence of content, wording and structure with Matthew’s and Luke’s gospel, on the basis of the above-mentioned arguments, we conclude that Mark’s priority is most likely. In connection with this, it has to be said that the ‘two-document’ hypothesis is probably the answer to the synoptic problem, adding to it that the process of permeation and borrowing was much more flexible in the formation time of the gospels, than it was thought earlier.

A tudás ösvényén II., 2020

A qumráni közösség rendkívül zárt volt, és az elzárkózó, félrevonuló jellege rányomta mindenre bé... more A qumráni közösség rendkívül zárt volt, és az elzárkózó, félrevonuló jellege rányomta mindenre bélyegét, így a tanító és tanítvány viszonyára is. Ez az ezoterikus vonás nyilvánul meg azokban a kemény tilalmakban, melyek szerint – ahogy erről Josephus Flavius az esszénusokkal kapcsolatban tudósít – még halálos fenyegetés esetén sem szabad idegeneknek, be nem avatottaknak felfedni a szekta „titkait”, azaz tanait, továbbá azokban az előírásokban, ahol az áll, hogy titokként kell őrizni a szekta műveit, az angyalok neveit stb.
Nehezen megfejthető, hogy ilyen mérvű zártság, szigorúság és lemondás ellenére miért volt mégis vonzó egyesek számára a közösséghez csatlakozás gondolata. Mégis feltételezhető, hogy az intertestamentális korban is léteztek olyanok, akik nehéz körülményeik, gondjaik, kiábrándultságuk vagy kielégítetlenül maradt, fokozott lelki igényeik miatt életidegenek maradtak a korabeli társadalomban, nem találták helyüket a vallásos életben, és menekülni vágytak egy ideálisnak vélt közösségbe, ahol minden külső hatástól teljesen elszigetelten vegetáltak, ahol az élet a legapróbb vonatkozásaiban is szabályozva volt és csak vakon kellett engedelmeskedni.
A qumráni közösségbe való jelentkezés azzal kezdődött, hogy a „felügyelők” és az „oktatók” – gondolhatunk itt a saját terminológiánk szerint a tanítóra – szóban fejtették ki a novíciusnak a közösség titkos tanításának alapjait. Erre a „titkosságra” utalnak a fennmaradt kriptografikus szövegek is. A jelentkezőnek vakon kellett hinnie és engedelmeskednie az Igazság Tanítójának, mert csak így kerülhette el az eszkatológikus Ítélet Házát. A Tanító tanításába vetett hit jelentette a boldogságot és az üdvösséget az igazság követői számára.
A Szentírásban található tanító–tanítvány viszonyhoz mérve egy teljesen idegen kép tárul elénk, amikor a qumráni iratok tükrében vizsgáljuk ugyanezt a kérdést. Rögtön az elején riasztó az a rideg, merev hierarchia, amely a qumráni közösségben uralkodott. Mindenki a közösségben eltöltött ideje alapján foglalt helyet, és töltött be bizonyos tisztségeket Qumránban. Az is megdöbbentő, hogy nem létezett elhívás, vocatio a tanító részéről, hanem akárki saját döntése alapján csatlakozhatott a tanítványi körhöz. Az újoncok csak bizonyos, évekig tartó próbaidő sikeres letöltése után váltak a közösség teljes jogú tagjaivá.
Az is egészen furcsa, hogy a tanítók váltogatták egymást, tehát nem alakulhatott ki egy bizalmas, bensőséges viszony a tanító és a tanítvány között. Az is elmondható ezek után, hogy nem a tanítón, hanem a tanon volt a hangsúly. Nem lehetett egyszerűen odamenni a tanítóhoz, és zaklatni őt mindenféle személyes kérdéssel. Kötelezően és tisztelettudóan kellett felnézni rá, mint akinek hivatalból kijár az engedelmesség, mivel sokkal régebben volt jelen a közösségben, mint a tanítványok. Az Ószövetségben és az Újszövetségben a prófétához vagy a rabbihoz csatlakoztak a tanítványok, együtt éltek vele, és a közös élet során folyt az elméleti és gyakorlati oktatás. Az együttélés és együtt járás fontos eleme volt a tanító–tanítvány viszonynak. Qumránban ugyan együtt éltek és dolgoztak az emberek, de a tanítás tízes csoportokban folyt, miközben a tanítók váltogatták egymást.
A közösség szabálya azt is előírta, hogy a tanítványoknak tanulmányozással kellett eltölteniük az éjszakák egyharmadát. A legvalószínűbb feltételezések szerint a Szentírást tanulmányozták. Volt tehát közösen eltöltött idő is, amikor kis csoportokban a tanító oktatta a tanítványokat, és ehhez járult az egyéni tanulmányozás. A virrasztással eltöltött idő a Szentírásban való elmélyedést és az önsanyargatást szolgálta. Azért beszélhetünk önsanyargatásról, mert az étkezés esetében is jól meghatározott adagokról beszélnek az iratok, és ezek a fejadagok is meglehetősen egyszerűek voltak, és nélkülözték a változatosságot.
Nem létezett vocatio a közösséghez való csatlakozás alkalmával, és nem létezett misszió a tanok megismerése után. Mindez magyarázható a szekta teljes zártságával és kizárólagosságával. Az emberiség tagjait nagyon könnyen kategorizálták: léteztek a világosság fiai a közösségen belül, és a sötétség fiai a közösségen kívül. A gonoszoknak egyértelműen el kellett veszniük, ezért nem is imádkoztak értük, nem is próbálták őket megtéríteni, jobb belátásra bírni. Éppen ezért számukra végtelenül egyszerű volt a különbségtétel és az ítélet kérdése. Várták a messiást, aki számukra életet fog hozni, míg mindenki más el fog pusztulni. A be- és elzárkózott szektás jelleg teljes mértékben illett rájuk, és szilárdan meg voltak győződve, hogy ez az egyetlen helyes út.
A tanító és tanítvány viszonya Qumránban teljesen esetleges volt. A tanító személye nem volt fontos, nem számított annyira, mint példamutató vagy követendő minta, jóllehet előírásszerűen kellett tisztelni őt. A személyes kapcsolat helyett a Szentírás és a közösség iratai bírtak normatív jelleggel a tanítványok életére. Az iratokat kellett tanulmányozni és az előírt szabályoknak kellett hajszálpontosan engedelmeskedni az üdvösség reményében.

Studia Universitatis Babeş-Bolyai, Theologia Reformata Transylvanica, 2017

John the Baptist and his disciples have an exceptional importance for our research, because chron... more John the Baptist and his disciples have an exceptional importance for our research, because chronologically and in other important ways, they are very close to Jesus and his disciples. Their chronological proximity is proven by their almost simultaneous conception, their activity, and finally their execution. John the Baptist prepared the way for Christ through his ministry. He gathered disciples and taught them to pray. He fasted together with his disciples. We have to leave open the question of his contact with Qumran and his relationship to the Essenes. In some respects there are similarities between him and Jesus, but there cannot be denied the differences, first of all regarding the ascetic way of life. Because of his uncompromising preaching and the upholding of the banner of truth he had to suffer a violent death. Through his death he becomes a part of the prophet’s fatal destiny.

Biblical interpretation. Eras, Methods, Contexts. Bibliaértelmezés. Korok, módszerek, kontextusok. , 2020

The commission is due to the Father who tried to reconcile the world with himself by sending his ... more The commission is due to the Father who tried to reconcile the world with himself by sending his Son to the mankind which became alienated from him. Jesus’ calling is not an invitation to a hermetically isolated community for a few elected Jews, who will later enjoy the blessings of their master’s proximity and the advantages of the security of his presence. Jesus’ calling viewed the commission. Analyzing the mode of the disciples’ commission we can discover some similarities with the commission of the prophets by God in the Old Testament. In the Old Testament we can see that the majority of the prophets did not desire their election for the commission. Their encounter with God (Is 6:1–13) and their appointment were usually unexpected events (1 Sam 3:1–14), against what some of them protested (Jer 1:6), and/or tried to find a way out (Ex 3:11; 4:1.10.13). The disciples did not fight Jesus’ call but they did not seek for it either. God entrusted the Old Testament prophets with a message which they experienced and had to deliver and which defined their lives. The service lead to inner tension and exterior suffering. They had to deliver the message they were entrusted with succinctly and intelligibly so God will not require the blood of the wicked at their hands (Ezek 33:7–9).
When Jesus called them he promised that he will make them become fishers of men (Mk 1:17). He starts to keep his promise when he first sends them out. During his service he was moved with compassion for the people who were weary and like sheep not having a shepherd (Mt 9:36, borrowed by Matthew from Mk 6:34). Therefore he sends his disciples to harvest. The way he carried out his ministry of preaching and healing with the authority he received from God he sends his disciples to drive out demons and to heal diseases giving them the same authority and power. In spite of this it was recorded about the disciples that on one occasion they could not heal the son of a father who came to them (Mk 9:17–18), although they received authority to do so. In that case their failure was due to their unbelief, and to the lack of prayer and fasting.
After the investment with authority and power follows the sending out in pairs (Mk 6:7). The sending out in pairs reminds us of the situation in the Old Testament, when the testimony was valid only if two (or three) witnesses testified alike (Num 35:30; Deut 17:6; 19:15). The calling of the first four disciples already shows that Jesus calls them two by two (Mk 1:16–20). In some lists of names the Twelve (except Judas, the son of James in Acts 1:13) are mentioned in pairs, which suggests that they completed their service in pairs (Mt 10:2–4; Acts 1:13). When they are sent out they go in pairs and this is also the case of the seventy(-two) disciples’ mission in Luke’s gospel (Lk 10:1). The sending by twos served on the one hand for the enforcement of the message’s validity and on the other hand for the security of the disciples who this way could protect and help each other more easily.
Jesus sends them out two by two but in spite of the spiritual equipment they have to complete their commission in physical defenselessness. This incomplete equipment also referred to Jesus’ poverty. In all the three synoptic gospels it is recorded that Jesus forbade his disciples to take bread, bag, money, two tunics, sandals and a staff with them (Mk 6:8–9; Mt 10:9–10; Lk 9:3; 10:4; cf. 22:35). Only in Mark’s gospel it can be read that Jesus allowed his disciples to take a staff and sandals. There were several attempts to explain the reasons that originated the “Spartan prohibition.” According to Gerd Teißen this prohibition avoids that the disciples would be considered beggars. All in all we could say that the reason for the disciples’ incomplete equipment is on the one hand that they depend on Jesus, and on the other hand the urgency of the gospel’s proclamation. The forbidden items from Lk 10:4 occur in the same sequence in Lk 22:35. Starting with Jesus’ crucifixion there is a new situation, when Israel consciously rejects the gospel so the purse and bag can be used. These are still the most indispensable basics of life. The fact that they have sell their garments in order to buy swords, hints at the threatening gravity of this new situation.

ZSOLTÁROK, HIMNUSZOK, IMÁDSÁGOK, 2009

This is the most intimate prayer of Jesus in Mark’s Gospel. He prayed this right before his captu... more This is the most intimate prayer of Jesus in Mark’s Gospel. He prayed this right before his captured and there one may sense the struggle of the (divine) man confronting death. In Mk 14,18 he speaks about his resurrection, but he is not facing death easily. He enters the garden of Gethsemane (Craig: “oil-press”, Cranfield: “press of oil”). Nine disciples have to sit down, and three have to accompany him. Jesus gave new names only to these three disciples, and they wanted to suffer and die with him; they are witnesses (France). He is troubled facing death, but this is not distrust. This story is not made up by the disciples; otherwise it would lack Jesus’ fear (Hooker), and the fact that they fall asleep. Jesus is stretched to the limit (peri,lupoj), he needs the companionship of his disciples (grhgore,w), Schweizer: “watch” is mentioned in contrast with their sleeping. Jesus goes mikro,n away: a. he needs the closeness of his disciples, b. he needs to be alone with his Father. He is still in hearing range (Lk 22,41 w`sei. li,qou bolh.n). Gundry: it was a custom to pray aloud even alone. The problem: who recorded his prayer? a. the disciples, b. Jesus told them afterwards, c. the young man (Burkitt, Saunderson). The eiv dunato,n evstin is not disbelief, but he asks for the divine plan to be changed. The “hour” in apocalyptic literature is connected with the end and with the judgement (Dan 11,40.45 LXX). Jesus calls God Abba in a very intimate way, that was not customary in Hebrew prayer; he knew that he was the Son of God. Derrett alludes to the case of Isaac, when God found another solution for him (Gen 22,1–19). Here comes the heart of this pericope and prayer: he wants to escape death, but for him the will of his Father is more important.
Jesus returns to his disciples, but they sleep. He was away one hour (Evans). Reprobation: Simon, and not Peter, who was ready to die for him, now sleeps. Jesus returns three times, Peter sleeps three times, and then denies him three times. Jesus remains more and more alone.
It continues his reproach, this time to all three of them. There is a new command for watching (which here means more than just keeping awake) and proseu,comai is added. The prayer is not for escaping the temptation, rather for standing up to the test.
Jesus goes to pray for a second time, not too far from them. He needed the support of his disciples, but they failed. Lk 22,43: an angel from heaven strengthened him. He gives an example to pray. He prayed the same thing but not with the same words (Swete, Hendriksen). The issue was the same, that He might understand God’s will (v. 36). Jesus returns for the second time, and the disciples sleep. He is lonely. Peter does not know what to answer (he was already in this situation – Mk 9,6). The rabbinic rule says: if someone falls asleep and cannot answer a question, the ceremony is over (Mann). Jesus expected from his disciples that they watch and pray with him (Tertullian).
There is no mention that Jesus goes away, prays and the disciples sleep for the third time. He tells them: kaqeu,dw and avnapau,w. Morgan: this is not ironic, but full of love. The “now” may sustain this view. The Codex Bobbiensis has restructured vv. 41–42, inserting “and after a little while he aroused them” before “the hour has come” (Metzger). They don’t have to stay awake and pray anymore; this is a new situation. Now Jesus knows what God’s will is, and he is ready to die (Focant). Maybe he left his disciples to rest for a while, but then saw the approaching torches and he commands them to get up. They will join the other eight disciples before Judas will arrive. He wakes them up not to flee, but to go to meet his fate. He knows exactly what will happen.

Religious Education within the Context of the Common European Home, 2004

Meeting God in the Other Studies in Religious Encounter and Pluralism in honour of Dorin Oancea on the occasion of his 70 th birthday edited by, 2019

Initially, the Woman at the Well saw Jesus as an enemy, a Jew. Later, she asks if her interlocuto... more Initially, the Woman at the Well saw Jesus as an enemy, a Jew. Later, she asks if her interlocutor is greater than their ancestor, Jacob. She then calls him “Sir” and acknowledges that he is a prophet but she still entertains some doubts as to whether or not he is the Christ (mēti used here by her is an interrogative particle in questions expecting a negative answer). Nonetheless she gives her testimony regarding him, and at the end we assume that she acknowledges him as her Saviour together with her fellow Samaritans. Her encounter with Jesus passes through different stages and phases. While Nicodemus and Jesus’ disciples often misunderstand or did not understand Jesus at all, this woman draws closer and closer to Jesus until she becomes a true believer and missionary. Two very different persons meet at the well, representing different nations, religions, genders, backgrounds and cultures, although they share the same ancestors and worship God. Jesus’ tender approach and openness makes possible not just a lengthy discussion between them, but an existential encounter which definitively transforms the woman’s life and makes her a genuine believer and Christ’s agent in his mission to the Samaritans.

RESEARCH AND SCIENCE TODAY este o revistă ştiinţifică, bianuală, fondată în anul 2011 şi publicat... more RESEARCH AND SCIENCE TODAY este o revistă ştiinţifică, bianuală, fondată în anul 2011 şi publicată în colaborare cu Universitatea „Constantin Brâncuşi” din Târgu-Jiu. Revista reprezintă un suport de informare în care se regăsesc publicate articole de sinteză şi rezultatele diferitelor cercetări ştiinţifice realizate de către persoane aflate în sfera educaţionalului.

Oferim posibilitatea autorilor de a crea şi/sau de a-şi perfecţiona abilităţile de a scrie articole ştiinţifice. Astfel, fiecare aparţie (două numere pe an şi cel puţin două suplimente) va conţine articole elaborate, din orice domeniu, de către persoane din ţară şi străinătate

Scopul revistei Research and Science Today este acela de a transmite informaţia către studenţi, masteranzi, doctoranzi dar şi către cadrele didactice şi cercetătorii ştiinţifici, iar arealul domeniilor pe care revistă îl cuprinde este nelimitat având în vedere profilul multidisciplinar pe care aceasta îl are.

În privinţa vizibilităţii, naţionale şi internaţionale, de care revista se bucură, aceasta se regăseşte indexată în peste 20 de baze de date internaționale (BDI) şi este prezentă în peste 100 de biblioteci şi cataloage online, astfel oricine poate accesa foarte uşor articolele ce sunt publicate în fiecare număr, prin intermediul bazelor de date sau direct de pe site.

From Movement to Inheritance, 2019

The goal and happiness of man, the unity with himself presumed the integration into the universal... more The goal and happiness of man, the unity with himself presumed the integration into the universal law (nomos) which obliged everyone to the same extent. The law was identical with the eternal godlike logos which ruled the cosmos. Stoicism, Epicureanism, and neo-Platonism were the most important of the Hellenistic philosophical trends. The ideal of the Stoics was the wise one who lived a natural life and was resigned to fate. The world has unchangeable laws and the disciples could only adjust to them. The peak of freedom and perfection is apatheia. Regarding the master-disciple relationship in Hellenism, the stress is not that much on the deficiency of the student’s knowledge but on the fact that the pupil starts the studying, which presumes the attainment of a certain knowledge and behavior; all this happens according to a certain, well defined plan. When somebody became disciple of a philosopher, very often great changes took place in his life. In some cases, he left his home, his family, and joined a small, closed community. In Hellenism the intellectual factor was a constituent part of the idea of discipleship to a great extent. In the Greek philosophy after a while the imitating of the master’s behavior and life-style took the place of actual studying. The rabbinic master-disciple relationship developed from the Pharisaic system. In the New Testament ordinary men referred to the scribes as rabbis. Gradually the expression ‘rabbi’ became a technical term used for referring only to those who were ordained, which meant that they were authorized to judge in religious matters. The rabbi was expert only in the Torah. Ordination was practiced only in Palestine. Someone was worthy of the ‘rabbi’ title only after the ordination, while the others were addressed by their names. The ordination ceased in the 4th century after Christ. Beginning with that time the title ‘rabbi’ could be obtained by the approval of three other rabbis who agreed that the person in question had appropriate knowledge to explain the Law. The disciples learned not only in school from their master, but in everyday life too. The disciples did not receive only theoretical knowledge from the rabbi, but also took on their habits, their lifestyle, and even some of their typical gestures. The rabbi repeated the oral tradition many times, and the disciples had to memorize it without any mistakes, exactly. Jesus did not differ from the rabbis in the topics he addressed, but more in his radical approach, in the way he dealt with those questions. Contrary to the path of the rabbinic disciples, Jesus’ disciples did not have to become rabbis, because Jesus wanted to remain their exclusive, sole teacher. Jesus’ disciples did not have to become brilliant in theoretical knowledge, but they had to carry out practical duties..

Studia Univesitatis Babes-Bolyai, Theologia Reformata Transylvanica, 2016

The story of the disciples’ vocation shows several resemblances with the call stories of the Old ... more The story of the disciples’ vocation shows several resemblances with the call stories of the Old Testament prophets, especially the call of Elisha by Elijah (1Kgs 19,19-21). Karl Heinrich Rengstorf strongly refutes this view because he thinks that in the Old Testament did not exist a master-disciple relationship. Although many agreed, at this point he is out in this matter. Jesus’ disciples do not have to be on probation and live isolated as the followers of the Teacher of Righteousness in Qumran. Contrary to the latter, Jesus’ disciples received their calling primarily for service. Jesus taught the message and love of the Father, lived it in front of his disciples in order that they may continue his mission. The followers of philosophy and the disciples of the rabbis could surpass their masters, but for Jesus’ disciples it was enough to be like the One that called them.

Studia, 2023

At the Crossroads of Cultures and Spiritualities In the Gospel of John chapter 4 we read of a pec... more At the Crossroads of Cultures and Spiritualities
In the Gospel of John chapter 4 we read of a peculiar encounter. A Samaritan woman meets with a Jewish rabbi at a rather unusual time of the day at a well. It is a difficult task to have a clear picture of who the Samaritans were exactly, but we may assume three theories about them. The first approach is connected to the view of how the Samaritans perceive themselves. They see themselves as the true Israel, and all the others are heretics. Their own Torah inherited from Moses is the genuine one, and the others falsified it. The second approach is due to the Judeans. They regard as valid what we can read in the Jewish Old Testament, in the second book of Kings, chapter 17, verses 24-41. According to this view the Samaritans origin may be traced back to the Mesopotamian immigrants. Some Israelites got mixed up with pagans. After the return from the Babylonian captivity, the Jews refused to rebuild the Temple together with the Samaritans. This caused the building of a new temple by the Samaritans, and hence there many tensions arouse among the Jews and Samaritans. The third view can be called the scientific approach. According to this between Samaritans and Jews was no disruption in the 5th century B.C. Assyrians settled the Samaritans. The Jews looked at them with suspicion because of their ethnic and mainly religious background. The real drift apart became obvious in the 2nd century B.C., and after their temple was destroyed. The Samaritans worked on their own Pentateuch, they had their own priesthood, and these facts became a fundamental difference between them. Since then the Jews regarded Samaritans as pagans, and as their enemies.
In John 4 the woman in the beginning sees in the man a traditional enemy, but slowly her attitude changes. She is not sure if her conversational partner is greater than Jacob, who was their highly esteemed predecessor. At a certain point of their discussion, the unnamed woman calls the rabbi “Sir” and regards him as a prophet. The woman has strong doubts about Jesus being the Christ to come, and whom the Samaritans expected. At the end of this conversation, the woman changes her attitude, speaks without hindrance about the young rabbi, and recognizes with her fellow villagers that this is the long expected Saviour. It is remarkable the openness of the woman, who is not stuck with her predefined ideas, but is ready to listen carefully to the man whom she identified as her enemy in the beginning. In this Gospel we read many stories. One of them is Nicodemus, who is not entirely sure about what Jesus asks of him. The disciples of Jesus are often perplexed and confused when their Master speaks to them. Here we read of a woman, who understands Jesus and recognize in him Christ. She not just believes in Jesus, but becomes a missionary among her fellow Samaritans. The difference in huge between them in the beginning, but slowly they start to approach, and the woman at the end is converted. Her life is helped and influenced dramatically and existentially by the patience and understanding of Jesus.

VIRTUE OR OBLIGATION, 2020

At the time of his engagement to young Mary, Joseph was a mature man according to the custom of h... more At the time of his engagement to young Mary, Joseph was a mature man according to the custom of his time. During the intimate period of betrothal it transpired that Mary was pregnant. Joseph was a righteous man and had not had intimate relations with her, but could not suspect anything other than the infidelity of his fiancée. His righteousness was also revealed by his behaviour, as he did not consider the common practice of stoning in this situation, but tried to protect Mary’s reputation by planning to release her secretly. Joseph was enlightened in his dream about the real situation. This revelation overwrote the kindness of Joseph, he obeyed the command and married Mary, and by doing so he played an active role in God’s salvation history.

Ünneplő ember a közösségben, 2019

Az adakozás a zsidó kegyességi gyakorlatok egyike volt. A templom 13 kürtszerű egyik perselyébe t... more Az adakozás a zsidó kegyességi gyakorlatok egyike volt. A templom 13 kürtszerű egyik perselyébe történik az önkéntes adakozás, melyet Jézus ülve figyel, és tanítást fűz hozzá. A tanítás során a sok kevésnek, és a kevés soknak minősül. A gazdagok tömegében megjelenik a magára maradt, egyedül élő özvegy. Az Úr nem a pénz mennyiségére, hanem a lelkületre, a bőkezűség túláradására figyel. Kétfajta adakozás áll előttünk. Az egyik a tömeg és a gazdagok megfontolt adakozása, mely beosztja a javakat, mindenhova juttat, de bebiztosítja magát a holnapra is. A másik az özvegy adakozása, amely megfontolatlannak minősülhetne, hiszen nem számol a következő pillanattal, a holnappal, semmit sem tesz félre abból a kicsiből, amivel rendelkezik, csak a kegyelmes Atyába vetett bizalommal mindenét a perselybe helyezi. Jézus látja mindkét adakozást, és megosztja véleményét tanítványaival. Értékel, amikor azt mondja, hogy a szegény özvegy mindenkinél többet dobott a perselybe, az egész vagyonát, megélhetését odaadta, most már nem maradt semmije, csak Istene és a belé vetett hite. Összehasonlítva a látványosan sok a fölösleg egy részének, míg az eltörpülő kevés mindennek minősül. Az adakozókészség és a hit fordítottan arányos az anyagi háttérrel. Mindez tanulságul és mércéül szolgál számunkra, mai tanítványainak.

The Religious Education in the Anglican and Protestant Tradition - Oxford and Switzerland, 1997

After 1989 the Protestant churches regained a part of their religious freedom. In the next period... more After 1989 the Protestant churches regained a part of their religious freedom. In the next period religious teaching was once again permitted in the public schools. At the same time Religious Education has not ceased in the church.

Az újszövetségi "megbékélés" fogalom előfordulásainak és jelentéseinek áttekintése, 2020

Survey of the Meanings and Occurrences of the Terminology of Reconciliation in the New Testament.... more Survey of the Meanings and Occurrences of the Terminology of Reconciliation in the New Testament. Reconciliation may happen on three levels. The first one is to be reconciled with God. In this matter, God himself helps us, who took the first steps towards us after we had left him and had turned our back to him. He sent his only Son, who gave up his life in order to reconcile us with his Father, to restore the broken connection, relationship, and peace. The second level is to be reconciled with friends. In this matter, it could help us a great matter, if one was reconciled with the Creator. To be reconciled with God means a task for human beings, as they have to be at peace with each other. Reconciliation with others may happen outwards and inwards. It happens outwards, when the relationship is handled with God, with the other, and with oneself. We speak about inwards reconciliation, when it happens between husband and wife, between friends (relatives, neighbors), between principal and subaltern, or enemies. The third level is to be reconciled with oneself. This may be the hardest task, because one has to fight oneself: you have difficult issues to let go, you have to be at peace with yourself in order to serve God and your neighbor as your Creator requires from you.

Luther și Scrisoarea către Romani. De la conflict la comuniune, 2017

Five hundred years ago Martin Luther struggled to understand truly the justice and love of God, a... more Five hundred years ago Martin Luther struggled to understand truly the justice and love of God, and from his concern, without his will, from unity resulted conflict, an excommunication and schism. After centuries of misunderstandings, quarrels, disputes, anathemas and bloodshed in church history today we found ourselves in different folds (John 10,16), praying for unity. Our opinion about truth and unity is often influenced and biased by the fact that we are a member in a certain church. As we are surer about our truth, we distance ourselves from the others and become ridiculous in the eyes of this world (John 13,35) to whom we have to bear witness about the true God. Jesus is the truth (14,6) but we go astray and get lost in our barren theology. In spite of The Leuenberg Agreement it is extremely difficult to have real unity between the Reformed and Lutheran Church. There are many prejudices and dissatisfaction in the churches. Only through the love given by the Holy Spirit the wounds can be healed and we can experience real unity. There is a long journey and process to achieve true unity.