Nicola Hodges | University of British Columbia (original) (raw)

Papers by Nicola Hodges

Journal of Sports Sciences, 2022

ABSTRACT The challenge-point framework as a model for thinking about motor learning was first pro... more ABSTRACT The challenge-point framework as a model for thinking about motor learning was first proposed in 2004. Although it has been well-cited, surprisingly this framework has not made its way into much of the applied sport science literature. One of the reasons for this omission is that the original framework had not been encapsulated into a paper accessible for sports practitioners. The framework had mostly a theoretical focus, providing a mechanistic summary of motor learning research. Our aims in this paper were to explain and elaborate on the challenge point framework to present an applied framework guiding practice design. We connect the framework to other theories that involve predictive coding, where information is attended when it disconfirms current predictions, providing a strong signal for learning. We also consider how two new dimensions (learners’ motivation and practice specificity) need to be considered when designing practice settings. By moving around the different dimensions of functional difficulty, motivation, and specificity, coaches can optimize practice to achieve different learning goals. Specifically, we present three general “types” of practice: practice to learn, to transfer to competition, and to maintain current skills. Practical examples are given to illustrate how this framework can inform coach practice.

Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 2020

Motor Control, 2009

There is evidence that actions are planned by anticipation of their external effects, with the st... more There is evidence that actions are planned by anticipation of their external effects, with the strength of this effect being dependent on the amount of prior practice. In Experiment 1, skilled soccer players performed a kicking task under four conditions: planning in terms of an external action effect (i.e., ball trajectory) or in terms of body movements, either with or without visual error feedback. When feedback was withheld, a ball focus resulted in more accurate outcomes than a body focus. When visual feedback was allowed, there was no difference between these two conditions. In Experiment 2, both skilled and novice soccer players were tested with the addition of a control condition and in the absence of visual feedback. For both groups there was evidence that a ball focus was more beneficial for performance than a body focus, particularly in terms of movement kinematics where correlations across the joints were generally higher for body rather than ball planning. Most skilled p...

Journal of motor behavior, 2005

The authors examined the observational learning of 24 participants whom they constrained to use t... more The authors examined the observational learning of 24 participants whom they constrained to use the model by removing intrinsic visual knowledge of results (KR). Matched participants assigned to video (VID), point-light (PL), and no-model (CON) groups performed a soccer-chipping task in which vision was occluded at ball contact. Pre- and posttests were interspersed with alternating periods of demonstration and acquisition. The authors assessed delayed retention 2-3 days later. In support of the visual perception perspective, the participants who observed the models showed immediate and enduring changes to more closely imitate the model's relative motion. While observing the demonstration, the PL group participants were more selective in their visual search than were the VID group participants but did not perform more accurately or learn more.

Psychological Research, 2013

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Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 2008

Purpose: We examined the role of visual-spatial information during whole body coordination. Metho... more Purpose: We examined the role of visual-spatial information during whole body coordination. Methods: Physiological, biomechanical, and psychological indices of coordination stability were recorded while participants were visually coupled with a whole body image of themselves during treadmill locomotion. Ten participants ran on a treadmill under three visual conditions: two dynamic images (symmetrical, mirror image; asymmetrical, reversed mirror image) and one static. Performance was examined at two speeds. Results: Participants ran more economically (ml•kg•min-1) when participants were visually coupled with a symmetrical rather than an asymmetrical or static image. An asymmetrical coupling resulted in increased variability in footfall position at the faster speed, in comparison to the symmetrical and static conditions. However, at slower speeds, footfall variability and frequency were higher under both dynamic visual conditions in comparison to the static control. Conclusion: It appears that changes in physiology were only partially mediated by movement kinematics. Visual information influences treadmill locomotion and associated measures of stability even when there is no intention to coordinate.

The Open Sports Sciences Journal, 2012

In two experiments, we tested whether non-task goal related variability, in the form of randomly ... more In two experiments, we tested whether non-task goal related variability, in the form of randomly administered mechanical perturbations during practice, would facilitate the acquisition of a novel two-handed coordination movement. In both experiments, we failed to find beneficial effects of adding non-task related variability in comparison to no-added variability control groups. In Experiment 1, when variability was administered after a period of stabilization, and in the presence of performance enhancing feedback, no differences between a control group and a variability (perturbation) group were found in retention. This was despite significant improvements for both groups and evidence that the perturbations worked to increase movement variability later in practice. In Experiment 2, we increased the amount of practice, changed the feedback, and provided variability throughout practice. Despite these changes, externally added, mechanical perturbations failed to aid learning. We conclude that variability, in and of itself, is not a sufficient variable to bring positive change to performance and learning. Variability has the potential to aid learning when it is internally-generated, dependent on performance and/or task goal related.

Routledge Handbook of Sport Expertise, 2015

Journal of Clinical Medicine, 2022

Auditory perception plays an important role in voice control. Pitch discrimination (PD) is a key ... more Auditory perception plays an important role in voice control. Pitch discrimination (PD) is a key index of auditory perception and is influenced by a variety of factors. Little is known about the potential effects of voice disorders on PD and whether PD testing can differentiate people with and without a voice disorder. We thus evaluated PD in a voice-disordered group (n = 71) and a non-voice-disordered control group (n = 80). The voice disorders included muscle tension dysphonia and neurological voice disorders and all participants underwent PD testing as part of a comprehensive voice assessment. Percentage of accurate responses and PD threshold were compared across groups. The PD percentage accuracy was significantly lower in the voice-disordered group than the control group, irrespective of musical background. Participants with voice disorders also required a larger PD threshold to correctly discriminate pitch differences. The mean PD threshold significantly discriminated the voic...

Journal of Exercise, Movement, and Sport, 2015

Positive feedback, leading to experiences of success during skill acquisition, has been shown to ... more Positive feedback, leading to experiences of success during skill acquisition, has been shown to benefit motor skill learning. In this study, our aim was to manipulate learners' success perceptions through a minor adjustment to goal criterion (target size) in a dart-throwing task. Two groups of novice participants practiced throwing at a large (easy) or a small (difficult) target from the same distance. In reference to the origin/centre of the target, the practice targets were of equal objective difficulty and indeed participants in both groups were not different in their objective practice performance (i.e. radial error from the centre). Although the groups experienced markedly different success rates (making target 'hits'), with the large target group experiencing more hits and reporting more confidence (or self-efficacy) than the small target group, these practice effects were not carried into longer-term retention, which was assessed after a one-week delay. For succe...

Journal of Voice, 2021

CONTEXT Although differences in clinical interactions with patients between students and experien... more CONTEXT Although differences in clinical interactions with patients between students and experienced clinicians are well described, differences in therapeutic training behaviors have not been explored, especially in relation to motor learning principles. AIMS This pilot study compared clinical behaviors between speech language pathology (SLP) students and experienced SLPs in a voice therapy task, using prepractice variables in the Motor Learning Classification Framework (MLCF). METHODS Using a quasi-experimental design, five final-year undergraduate SLP students and four experienced SLPs with a voice therapy caseload taught a standardized patient to produce a vocal siren. Two trained raters categorized the clinicians' behaviors using the MLCF. RESULTS High intrarater reliability (91.9%, 92.3%) and interrater reliability (89.6%, 82.1%) were shown across both raters. Both clinician groups used the same percentage of behaviors classified as verbal information but differed in the subtypes of these behaviors. Experienced clinicians used behaviors categorized as problem-solving and only experienced clinicians used repeated behavior sequences that included perceptual training. Both groups used significantly more talking behaviors than doing behaviors. CONCLUSIONS The MLCF can be reliably used to identify prepractice behaviors during client interactions in voice therapy. Students and experienced clinicians showed similarities in behaviors, but experienced clinicians used more problem solving and perceptual training behaviors than students. These differences have implications for student training. The greater use of talking behaviors than doing behaviors warrants further investigation into whether this impacts the subsequent quality of practice engaged by the client and ultimately treatment effectiveness.

Brain Sciences, 2019

We evaluated if and how success perceptions, through target size manipulations, impact processes ... more We evaluated if and how success perceptions, through target size manipulations, impact processes related to motor learning. This work was based on recent literature suggesting that expectations and self-efficacy exert a direct impact on learning. We measured arousal, kinematics, learner expectancies, motivation, and outcomes in a dart-throwing task. Novices (n = 29) were assigned to either a “Large-target” (horizontal target, 10-cm high) or “Small-target” (2-cm high) group for practice (t = 90), and both groups completed 24-h retention tests. The Small-target group took longer to plan and process feedback in the pre-throw and post-throw periods, respectively, and showed larger joint amplitudes early in practice compared to the Large-target group. As predicted, the Large-target group made more hits and had heightened outcome expectancies compared to the Small-target group. Surprisingly, only the Large-target group performed better than they expected. Despite the Large-target group ha...

Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 2018

Objectives: We evaluated the relative importance of developmental soccer activities engaged in du... more Objectives: We evaluated the relative importance of developmental soccer activities engaged in during childhood and adolescence and their relationships with attainment of youth and adult professional status. Design and Methods: A mixed retrospective and prospective study was conducted whereby youth academy soccer players in the UK completed demographic and practice history questionnaires at Time 1 (T1; n = 102; 13-15 yr) and T2 (for those retained on a professional contract at ~17 yr; n = 26; termed Professional-youth). At T3 (~20 yr), players were further differentiated on the basis of progression to adult professional soccer (Adult-professional, n = 9; Youth-professional only, n = 17). Results: Less than 10% of the sample specialized only in soccer from childhood and no early specializers progressed to Adult-professional. Soccer was the majority sport from early childhood for nearly all players. Players that attained Professional-youth status (T2) accumulated more hours in organized soccer practice during childhood and started in an academy earlier than those that did not. The future adult and youth professionals did not differ on these childhood variables. However, a separate comparison of the professional groups showed that the Adult-Professionals accumulated more hours in play (and proportionately more hours in play) when estimates were based on T1 and T2, than the youth professional. Conclusions: These findings support the early-engagement pathway as a model for successful transitions in professional soccer amongst male youth elite players. This pathway is primarily defined by majority engagement in high volumes of domain specific practice and play in childhood.

Journal of Motor Behavior, 2018

We conducted two studies to investigate if and how: (1) the rate of skill acquisition was related... more We conducted two studies to investigate if and how: (1) the rate of skill acquisition was related to motor performance at retention of a serial RT task (Study 1); and (2) whether rate of skill acquisition and baseline performance could be used to design schedules of practice related to contextual interference (CI) to enhance motor learning (Study 2). In Study 1, a slower rate of skill acquisition of repeating sequences in practice was related to faster response times at retention. Based on performance in Study 1, three levels of individualized CI were created for Study 2. Compared to low and moderate levels of CI, the higher CI practice condition led to faster response times in retention. We conclude that an individualized 'challenge point', which generates high CI enhances motor learning by optimizing challenge.

Frontline Learning Research, 2017

The expert performance approach, initially proposed by Ericsson and Smith (1991), is reviewed as ... more The expert performance approach, initially proposed by Ericsson and Smith (1991), is reviewed as a systematic framework for the study of 'expert' learning. The need to develop representative tasks to capture learning is discussed, as is the need to employ process-tracing measures during acquisition to examine what actually changes during learning. We recommend the use of realistic retention and transfer tests to infer what has been learned, so that the effects of various interventions on learning may be evaluated. A focus on individual differences in learning within groups of expert performers is considered as a way to identify the characteristics of more efficient and effective learners. The identification and study of expert (or good) learners will enhance our understanding of skill acquisition and how this may be promoted using instructional interventions and practice opportunities. Although these ideas are predicated on our research on perceptual-cognitive expertise in sport, we argue that they have general merit beyond this domain. The challenge for scientists is to generate new knowledge that helps those involved in developing learners who can acquire and refine skills more efficiently and effectively across professional domains.

Journal of motor behavior, Jan 27, 2017

We report two experiments evaluating the impact of success-related feedback on learning of a bala... more We report two experiments evaluating the impact of success-related feedback on learning of a balance task. In Exp. 1, we studied the influence of lax and conservative outcome feedback, as well as large vs. small improvements in outcome feedback on balance learning. Despite impacts on competency, there were no between-group differences in actual performance or learning. Because no comparative information was provided in Exp. 1, we tested four further groups that either did or did not receive positive or negative comparative feedback (Exp. 2). Although the manipulations influenced competency and arousal, again, there was no impact on balance outcomes. These data cast doubt on the assertions made in the OPTIMAL theory that perceptions of success are moderators of motor learning.

Motor Control, 2006

The importance of action-effects for the performance of a soccer kick was examined. Novice, inter... more The importance of action-effects for the performance of a soccer kick was examined. Novice, intermediate, and skilled players performed a soccer chip task with the intention of getting the ball over a height barrier to a near or far ground-level target under three conditions: full vision, no vision following ball contact with and without knowledge of results (KR). The removal of vision of the ball trajectory resulted in increased radial error, irrespective of the presence or absence of KR but in a skill-level and target dependent manner. At the near target, novice participants relied on ball trajectory information. Intermediate performers were affected by its removal across both target conditions, whereas skilled participants were not affected by the removal of ball vision. Variability in knee-ankle coordination significantly decreased when vision of the ball trajectory was removed, irrespective of KR and skill level. Although across skill level there was evidence that action-effects information is used to execute the action when it is available, only at the lower levels of skill did this information aid outcome attainment. There was no evidence to suggest that with increasing skill the dependence on this information increases.

Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance, Jan 9, 2016

To test mechanisms underpinning action prediction, we directly controlled experience in a dart-th... more To test mechanisms underpinning action prediction, we directly controlled experience in a dart-throwing training study. A motor-visual group physically practiced throwing darts and a perceptual training group learned to associate dart throw actions (occluded video clips) with landing outcomes. A final control group did not practice. Accuracy was assessed on related prediction tests before and after practice (involving temporally occluded video clips). These tests were performed while additionally performing simple, action-incongruent secondary motor tasks with either the right (observed throwing arm) or left effector, in addition to an attention control task. Motor proficiency tests were also performed. Although both trained groups improved their prediction accuracy after training, only the motor-visual group showed interference associated with the right-arm secondary motor task after practice. No interference was shown for the left-arm motor task. These effects were evidenced regar...

Frontiers in Psychology, 2015

Positive feedback or experiences of success during skill acquisition have been shown to benefit m... more Positive feedback or experiences of success during skill acquisition have been shown to benefit motor skill learning. In this study, our aim was to manipulate learners' success perceptions through a minor adjustment to goal criterion (target size) in a dart-throwing task. Two groups of novice participants practiced throwing at a large (easy) or a small (difficult) target from the same distance. In reference to the origin/center of the target, the practice targets were alike in objective difficulty and indeed participants in both groups were not different in their objective practice performance (i.e., radial error from the center). Although the groups experienced markedly different success rates, with the large target group experiencing more hits and reporting greater confidence (or self-efficacy) than the small target group, these practice effects were not carried into longer-term retention, which was assessed after a 1-week delay. For success perceptions to moderate or benefit motor learning, we argue that unambiguous indicators of positive performance are necessary, especially for tasks where intrinsic feedback about objective error is salient.