Michael Sage | University of Cincinnati (original) (raw)
Papers by Michael Sage
American Historical Review, 1983
The book review traces the development of biography in Late Antiquity with particular reference t... more The book review traces the development of biography in Late Antiquity with particular reference to the concept of the holy man proposed by Peter Brown and its influence in the portraits of Origen in Eusebius' Church History and in Porphyry's Life of Plotinus.
Encyclopedia of Society and Culture in the Ancient World H, 2007
A summary of general trends in Greek land warfare from the Mycenaean period until the Hellenistic... more A summary of general trends in Greek land warfare from the Mycenaean period until the Hellenistic period.
TransactTransactions of the American Philological Associationociation (, 1975
The paper attempts to establish the chronological structure of the De Viris Illustribus through t... more The paper attempts to establish the chronological structure of the De Viris Illustribus through the use of source criticism and to illustrate the tendency in historical writing during the Empire to assimilate embed history in series of biographies.
Historia , 1979
An attempt to show that the parallels between the Elogia of the Augustan Forum and the late De Vi... more An attempt to show that the parallels between the Elogia of the Augustan Forum and the late De Viris Illustribus is not the result of copying, but rather the result of developments in how the Republic was perceived during the Imperial period.
Historia, 1983
A reply to L. Braccesi on his view of the relationship between the De Viris Illustribus and the e... more A reply to L. Braccesi on his view of the relationship between the De Viris Illustribus and the elogia of the Augustan Forum
San Diego Indepednet Scholars Lectures, 2015
The paper deals with the western European attitude towards Greece after the end of anitquity
ANRW 33.5, 1991
The article argues that Tacitus hardly possessed an antiquarian mentality which would find such r... more The article argues that Tacitus hardly possessed an antiquarian mentality which would find such research congenial. But more importantly it illustrates the fact that the true center of Tacitus' work is the Principate and the relation of his class to it. Earlier history was useful to illustrate what had been lost. Tacitus' harsh and unrelenting view of the last century of the Republic could be used to explain why. But the past was not important for its own sake. It could amuse, divert, be used to structure a dramatic climax, but most of all, as in the 'Agricola', it served to dramatize the deficiencies of the present.
The Encyclopedia of Ware, 2011
The paper gives a general account of the elements of hoplite warfare including equipment and tact... more The paper gives a general account of the elements of hoplite warfare including equipment and tactics.
Studia Troica, 2000
During the empire and into late antiquity, Ilium was an important destination for Roman and provi... more During the empire and into late antiquity, Ilium was an important destination for Roman and provincial travelers. Troy was a richly symbolic site,. Its associations with the Homeric poems and Alexander the Great were important incentives for eastern travelers. For western travelers, the legendary associations of Ilium with the founding of Rome supplied further inducements to undertake the journey. In Late Antiquity the continuing dominance of classical education and the sites closeness to Constantinople kept its appeal alive.
Desperta Ferro, 2015
Roman Auxiliary Forces during the Republic The army of the late Roman Republic underwent a number... more Roman Auxiliary Forces during the Republic The army of the late Roman Republic underwent a number of important developments which led to a substantially different force than the citizen militia it had originally been. Tactics, changed, but there were more important changes in its organization. By the end of the first century BC it had become a fully professional force serving on the frontiers of the empire. Half of this force was comprised of troops drawn from all over the Empire and from Rome's allies. The last century BC was crucial to this development. At the end of the second and the beginning of the first century BC the Roman army underwent profound changes. It had started as a citizen militia but success had changed it. At the beginning of the fourth century Rome's territory encompassed an area of about 1900 sq. km, by the end of the second it included most of the Mediterranean coast. In the course of the first century Rome expanded into western and central Europe and in the Near East to the Euphrates River. Expansion meant that the normal rhythm of the Mediterranean campaigning year beginning in early summer and ending in autumn was disrupted. Farmers who made up the bulk of the army could look longer return home for planting and harvesting. Not only were campaigns fought at great distances in Spain, Greece North Africa and elsewhere, but provinces originally military zones became permanently administered territories with Roman governors and garrisons. It has been estimated that by the late second century six years of continuous military service was now the norm. The extended absence of the soldiers from their farms created serious financial difficulty for them. The enormous influx of booty from overseas conquests primarily enriched the aristocracy which chose to invest its new-found wealth in land, the safest and most prestigious of investments. Nobles expanded their holdings by taking possession of state land which peasant farmers had used to supplement their own meager holdings. Successful fighting also resulted in a tremendous haul of slaves. In 167 BC after his victory over Perseus, the last Macedonian king, Paullus, the Roman commander, returning with his army to Italy sacked a number of cities in Epirus (part of modern Albania) and brought back 150,000 slaves. Slaves were used as labor on the farms of the wealthy and ended the chance for the part-time labor that peasants had used to supplement their income. All of this led to their impoverishment and migration to the cities, especially Rome, in hopes of better conditions. The increasing poverty is evident in the minimum property or census ratings necessary for service in the legions. From the mid-second century to its end the minimum census rating had declined by almost two-thirds. Complicating matters was a long and unpopular war in Spain that led to resistance to the draft. The need for troops and the political situation at the end of the second century led Marius, consul in 107 BC, to enroll for the first time of volunteers for the legions regardless of their property rating. Such men had served before but only during emergencies. This change seems to have become standard practice. At the time when Marius levied his troops there would have been little difference in wealth between the poorest of those eligible to serve and those even worse off.
Encyclopedia of Ancient Histoery, 2012
A descriptive article on the practice of contubernioum in the Roman army
Encyclodia of Ancient History, 2012
A short summary of the military rank of Optio ad Spem
The Encyclopedia of Ancient History
The Encyclopedia of Ancient History, 2012
The Encyclopedia of Ancient History, 2012
Vigiliae Christianae, Mar 1, 1980
Journal of Roman Studies, 2016
Book review of Y. Le Bohec's latest general history of Roman Imperial warfare down to the end of... more Book review of Y. Le Bohec's latest general history of Roman Imperial warfare down to the end of the reign of Severus Alexander. It is a less useful work than it might otherwise have been as it provides little information on the army's Republican predecessor.
Wiener Studien, 1983
The paper attempts to chart the events and motivations behind Valerian's decision to persecute an... more The paper attempts to chart the events and motivations behind Valerian's decision to persecute and Gallienus' ending of it. It attempts to place these events in their historical context.
American Historical Review, 1983
The book review traces the development of biography in Late Antiquity with particular reference t... more The book review traces the development of biography in Late Antiquity with particular reference to the concept of the holy man proposed by Peter Brown and its influence in the portraits of Origen in Eusebius' Church History and in Porphyry's Life of Plotinus.
Encyclopedia of Society and Culture in the Ancient World H, 2007
A summary of general trends in Greek land warfare from the Mycenaean period until the Hellenistic... more A summary of general trends in Greek land warfare from the Mycenaean period until the Hellenistic period.
TransactTransactions of the American Philological Associationociation (, 1975
The paper attempts to establish the chronological structure of the De Viris Illustribus through t... more The paper attempts to establish the chronological structure of the De Viris Illustribus through the use of source criticism and to illustrate the tendency in historical writing during the Empire to assimilate embed history in series of biographies.
Historia , 1979
An attempt to show that the parallels between the Elogia of the Augustan Forum and the late De Vi... more An attempt to show that the parallels between the Elogia of the Augustan Forum and the late De Viris Illustribus is not the result of copying, but rather the result of developments in how the Republic was perceived during the Imperial period.
Historia, 1983
A reply to L. Braccesi on his view of the relationship between the De Viris Illustribus and the e... more A reply to L. Braccesi on his view of the relationship between the De Viris Illustribus and the elogia of the Augustan Forum
San Diego Indepednet Scholars Lectures, 2015
The paper deals with the western European attitude towards Greece after the end of anitquity
ANRW 33.5, 1991
The article argues that Tacitus hardly possessed an antiquarian mentality which would find such r... more The article argues that Tacitus hardly possessed an antiquarian mentality which would find such research congenial. But more importantly it illustrates the fact that the true center of Tacitus' work is the Principate and the relation of his class to it. Earlier history was useful to illustrate what had been lost. Tacitus' harsh and unrelenting view of the last century of the Republic could be used to explain why. But the past was not important for its own sake. It could amuse, divert, be used to structure a dramatic climax, but most of all, as in the 'Agricola', it served to dramatize the deficiencies of the present.
The Encyclopedia of Ware, 2011
The paper gives a general account of the elements of hoplite warfare including equipment and tact... more The paper gives a general account of the elements of hoplite warfare including equipment and tactics.
Studia Troica, 2000
During the empire and into late antiquity, Ilium was an important destination for Roman and provi... more During the empire and into late antiquity, Ilium was an important destination for Roman and provincial travelers. Troy was a richly symbolic site,. Its associations with the Homeric poems and Alexander the Great were important incentives for eastern travelers. For western travelers, the legendary associations of Ilium with the founding of Rome supplied further inducements to undertake the journey. In Late Antiquity the continuing dominance of classical education and the sites closeness to Constantinople kept its appeal alive.
Desperta Ferro, 2015
Roman Auxiliary Forces during the Republic The army of the late Roman Republic underwent a number... more Roman Auxiliary Forces during the Republic The army of the late Roman Republic underwent a number of important developments which led to a substantially different force than the citizen militia it had originally been. Tactics, changed, but there were more important changes in its organization. By the end of the first century BC it had become a fully professional force serving on the frontiers of the empire. Half of this force was comprised of troops drawn from all over the Empire and from Rome's allies. The last century BC was crucial to this development. At the end of the second and the beginning of the first century BC the Roman army underwent profound changes. It had started as a citizen militia but success had changed it. At the beginning of the fourth century Rome's territory encompassed an area of about 1900 sq. km, by the end of the second it included most of the Mediterranean coast. In the course of the first century Rome expanded into western and central Europe and in the Near East to the Euphrates River. Expansion meant that the normal rhythm of the Mediterranean campaigning year beginning in early summer and ending in autumn was disrupted. Farmers who made up the bulk of the army could look longer return home for planting and harvesting. Not only were campaigns fought at great distances in Spain, Greece North Africa and elsewhere, but provinces originally military zones became permanently administered territories with Roman governors and garrisons. It has been estimated that by the late second century six years of continuous military service was now the norm. The extended absence of the soldiers from their farms created serious financial difficulty for them. The enormous influx of booty from overseas conquests primarily enriched the aristocracy which chose to invest its new-found wealth in land, the safest and most prestigious of investments. Nobles expanded their holdings by taking possession of state land which peasant farmers had used to supplement their own meager holdings. Successful fighting also resulted in a tremendous haul of slaves. In 167 BC after his victory over Perseus, the last Macedonian king, Paullus, the Roman commander, returning with his army to Italy sacked a number of cities in Epirus (part of modern Albania) and brought back 150,000 slaves. Slaves were used as labor on the farms of the wealthy and ended the chance for the part-time labor that peasants had used to supplement their income. All of this led to their impoverishment and migration to the cities, especially Rome, in hopes of better conditions. The increasing poverty is evident in the minimum property or census ratings necessary for service in the legions. From the mid-second century to its end the minimum census rating had declined by almost two-thirds. Complicating matters was a long and unpopular war in Spain that led to resistance to the draft. The need for troops and the political situation at the end of the second century led Marius, consul in 107 BC, to enroll for the first time of volunteers for the legions regardless of their property rating. Such men had served before but only during emergencies. This change seems to have become standard practice. At the time when Marius levied his troops there would have been little difference in wealth between the poorest of those eligible to serve and those even worse off.
Encyclopedia of Ancient Histoery, 2012
A descriptive article on the practice of contubernioum in the Roman army
Encyclodia of Ancient History, 2012
A short summary of the military rank of Optio ad Spem
The Encyclopedia of Ancient History
The Encyclopedia of Ancient History, 2012
The Encyclopedia of Ancient History, 2012
Vigiliae Christianae, Mar 1, 1980
Journal of Roman Studies, 2016
Book review of Y. Le Bohec's latest general history of Roman Imperial warfare down to the end of... more Book review of Y. Le Bohec's latest general history of Roman Imperial warfare down to the end of the reign of Severus Alexander. It is a less useful work than it might otherwise have been as it provides little information on the army's Republican predecessor.
Wiener Studien, 1983
The paper attempts to chart the events and motivations behind Valerian's decision to persecute an... more The paper attempts to chart the events and motivations behind Valerian's decision to persecute and Gallienus' ending of it. It attempts to place these events in their historical context.
The Army of the Roman Republic, 2018
The volume covers the history and development of the Roman army from its beginnings until the end... more The volume covers the history and development of the Roman army from its beginnings until the end of the Republic.
Rome in the Third Century SA Troubled Empire, 2024
Narrates the tumultuous events of the third century when the Roman Empire nearly collapsed throug... more Narrates the tumultuous events of the third century when the Roman Empire nearly collapsed through internal divisions and external enemies, but recovered. Useful discussion of the sources and their interpretation. Considers the view of contemporaries, both Pagan and Christian. Analyses the internal and external forces at work on the Empire, the weaknesses these exposed in its social, political and military institutions and how these developed through the crisis and recovery Assesses the influence of both long-term factors and short-term reactions to events
Rome in the Third Century A troubled Empirfe, 2024
Narrates the tumultuous events of the third century when the Roman Empire nearly collapsed throug... more Narrates the tumultuous events of the third century when the Roman Empire nearly collapsed through internal divisions and external enemies, but recovered. Useful discussion of the sources and their interpretation. Considers the view of contemporaries, both Pagan and Christian. Analyses the internal and external forces at work on the Empire, the weaknesses these exposed in its social, political and military institutions and how these developed through the crisis and recovery Assesses the influence of both long-term factors and short-term reactions to events
Classical review, 2008
Review of Representations of War in Ancient Rome by S. Dillon and K. E. Welch