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Artikelen by Victor Klinkenberg

Düring, B.S. and J.-H. Plug (eds) 2024. The Archaeology of the ‘Margins’. Studies on Ancient West Asia in Honour of Peter M.M.G. Akkermans. Analecta Praehistorica Leidensia 53. Leiden: Sidestone Press, pp. 177-194. DOI: 10.59641/h66998kt., 2024

During the Chalcolithic period in Cyprus, a fascinating phenomenon is that approximately one in s... more During the Chalcolithic period in Cyprus, a fascinating phenomenon is that approximately one in seven excavated buildings exhibits evidence of significant fires. While the occurrence of burnt buildings is not uncommon in prehistoric communities, this paper takes inspiration from Peter Akkermans’ research to comprehensively outline the various potential archaeological manifestations associated with house burnings to understand the context at hand. It is found that the house fires were part of a structured, recurring practice, that most likely should be interpreted as deliberate and ceremonial in nature. The building biographies show that the structures caught fire when they were no longer serving as domestic structures. It is suggested that the conflagrations were part of a community-wide celebrations, and that the building identity was perhaps of less significance than previously assumed. It is emphasised that for such contexts a data-driven approach should be preferred over one that relies on general theories.

Levant, 2022

Roundhouses from the Cypriot Chalcolithic display substantial size differences, as well as variet... more Roundhouses from the Cypriot Chalcolithic display substantial size differences, as well as variety between use phases. This paper employs a biographical approach to map and interpret the diversity and similarities between these buildings. Buildings from two sites in the southwest of Cyprus are examined for evidence of changes throughout their use lives. In addition, the diachronic relationships between buildings are investigated. The results suggest that within a strict normative framework, buildings were actively used for the expression of both cultural identity, and personal or household status. The manner in which this was achieved was specific to the phase of the house, construction, use or abandonment. While variables employed during construction served to articulate wealth or power differences, the mode of abandonment served as the most potent manifestation of enduring status.

Oxford Journal of Archaeology, 2022

The emergence and nature of social inequality has been the topic of a substantial amount of resea... more The emergence and nature of social inequality has been the topic of a substantial amount of research in recent years, with one group of scholars concluding that social inequality increased significantly with the rise of urbanism on the basis of the application of Gini measures, and another group arguing that social inequalities existed long before urbanism and that not all urban societies were class societies. Here, we present the case of Chalcolithic Cyprus, a decidedly pre-urban period for which we have quantifiable evidence that might indicate social inequality. On the basis of this dataset we will re-evaluate recent postulates on the emergence and nature of social inequality.

Archaeology in the Smallest Realm. Micro analyses and methods for the reconstruction of Cyprus early societies, 2021

The organization of the household and settlements in Chalcolithic Cyprus is traditionally reconst... more The organization of the household and settlements in Chalcolithic Cyprus is traditionally reconstructed through the functional analysis of floor level finds and architectural characteristics such as building size and spatial conventions. The available data set is unfortunately biased towards a few well-preserved, rich contexts, as most excavated buildings are only partly preserved, with few floor level finds. From many buildings only fragments of walls and floors were found. As constructed floors may yield information about the original function of a building, their precise characterization may help in identifying the functional nature of even the fragmentary preserved buildings. At Palloures, recently excavated Chalcolithic floors were sampled for micromorphology to define the materials and methods used in their construction. Results show that floors were made with a variety of tamped earth, clay, limestone and burnt lime recipes. In this paper, the floor types are described and related to the other functional aspects of buildings they were discovered in.

Current Approaches to Tells in the Prehistoric Old World, 2020

Umhlatuzana rockshelter has an occupation sequence spanning the last 70,000 years. It is one of t... more Umhlatuzana rockshelter has an occupation sequence spanning the last 70,000 years. It is one of the few sites with deposits covering the Middle to Later Stone Age transition (~40,000-30,000 years BP) in southern Africa. Comprehending the site's depositional history and occupation sequence is thus important for the broader understanding of the development of Homo sapiens' behavior. The rockshelter was first excavated in the 1980s by Jonathan Kaplan. He suggested that the integrity of the late Middle Stone Age and Later Stone Age sediments was compromised by large-scale sediment movement. In 2018, we initiated a high-resolution geoarchaeological study of the site to clarify the site formation processes. Here, we present the results of the excavation and propose a revised stratigraphic division of the Pleistocene sequence based on field observations , sedimentological (particle size) analyses, and cluster analysis. The taphonomy of the site is assessed through phytolith and geo...

The origins of copper-based metallurgy on the island of Cyprus, which became the main supplier of... more The origins of copper-based metallurgy on the island of Cyprus, which became the main supplier of the metal in the Late Bronze Age in the Mediterranean and whose name became associated with the metal, is relatively obscure. While metal extraction and metal artefacts became increasingly important in the broader Near East, early metallurgy on Cyprus remains poorly known, and it is often postulated that metals were of limited importance on the island prior to the Philia phase. Here we present a unique context from the Late Chalcolithic (ca. 2800-2400 BC) from the excavations at Chlorakas-Palloures that has considerable ramifications for this debate.

The Three Dimensions of Archaeology, 2016

In order to understand how the Assyrians maintained their hegemony in conquered territories it is... more In order to understand how the Assyrians maintained their hegemony in conquered territories it is essential to study how they impacted on and modified pre-existing landscapes and societies. Further, we need to investigate how daily activities, buildings, and material culture constituted the Assyrian state. The data from the Late Bronze Age Dunnu at Tell Sabi Abyad, a settlement almost completely excavated with thousands of in situ finds and an excellent preservation of the buildings, provides an ideal dataset to investigate the Middle Assyrian Empire from a bottom up perspective.
Thus, we are interested in how the Dunnu functioned in the local society and in the empire at large. During the uselife of this agricultural estate its spatial organisation and settlement form is changed substantially, and we would like to investigate what this meant in social terms. These issues are tackled by investigating: first, the distribution of all 9000 artefacts as well as numerous features in order to reconstruct activities and changes therein over time in the Dunnu; and, second, the reconstruction of the built environment in order to access how this facilitated specific types of control and interaction, drawing on space syntax methodologies. Ultimately our investigations will add a bottom up perspective to our understanding of the role of the Dunnu in local society and the empire at large.

The excavations at Tell Sabi Abyad, Syria, have yielded very important remains from the Late Neol... more The excavations at Tell Sabi Abyad, Syria, have yielded very important remains from the Late Neolithic and the Late Bronze Age. The resulting excavation archive covers 30 years of excavation, is unique in nature and of tremendous scientific value. The archive is constituted of many forms, drawings and photographs and is stored in different locations around the world. Because of this, it is largely inaccessible and exceptionally vulnerable to fire or water damage. For this reason, the entire Tell Sabi Abyad archive has been digitized and merged in one large online dataset, opening up data and knowledge from decades of excavating to the entire world.

Lacustrine localities were attractive environments for Palaeolithic hominins, since they provide ... more Lacustrine localities were attractive environments for Palaeolithic hominins, since they provide a large and broad spectrum of resources. Moreover, they are excellent archives that allow for high-resolution environmental, chronological and archaeological analyses. However, these deposits are often subject to complex formation and post-depositional factors, including water-related processes. Evaluating the influence of hydrological processes in site formation is thus essential to more accurately reconstruct the duration, intensity and types of hominin behaviour within these environments. In this paper we present the orientation analysis of archaeological material from the Last Interglacial site Neumark-Nord 2, Germany. Orientation analysis was done using GIS to calculate the orientation of artefact from digital plans of the excavation surface, which were subsequently tested using circular statistics. The results of the orientation analysis are compared with a hydrological model to check the relation between preferred orientations and reconstructed areas of water flow and accumulation. Results suggest that low-energy hydrological processes could have affected certain areas of the find-bearing deposits at Neumark-Nord 2 but, overall, there is no evidence for either high-energy hydrological processes or a significant movement of parts of the archaeological assemblage.

The Cide Archaeological Project: Surveying the Turkish Western Black Sea Region, 2000

The Cide Archaeological Project: Surveying the Turkish Western Black Sea Region, 2000

TMA- Tijdschrift voor Mediterrane Archeologie, 2017

TMA52, 2014

The excavations at Tell Sabi Abyad, Syria, have yielded very important remains from the Late Neol... more The excavations at Tell Sabi Abyad, Syria, have yielded very important remains from the Late Neolithic and the Late Bronze Age. The resulting excavation archive covers 30 years of excavation, is unique in nature and of tremendous scientific value. The archive is constituted of many forms, drawings and photographs and is stored in different locations around the world. Because of this, it is largely inaccessible and exceptionally vulnerable to fire or water damage. For this reason, the entire Tell Sabi Abyad archive has been digitized and merged in one large online dataset, opening up data and knowledge from decades of excavating to the entire world.

Books by Victor Klinkenberg

50 ANALECTA PRAEHISTORICA LEIDENSIA This volume is themed around the interdependent relationship ... more 50 ANALECTA PRAEHISTORICA LEIDENSIA This volume is themed around the interdependent relationship between humans and the environment, an important topic in the work of Corrie Bakels. How do environmental constraints and opportunities influence human behaviour and what is the human impact on the ecology and appearance of the landscape? And what can archaeological knowledge contribute to the current discussions about the use, arrangement and depletion of our (local) environment?

Düring, B.S. and J.-H. Plug (eds) 2024. The Archaeology of the ‘Margins’. Studies on Ancient West Asia in Honour of Peter M.M.G. Akkermans. Analecta Praehistorica Leidensia 53. Leiden: Sidestone Press, pp. 177-194. DOI: 10.59641/h66998kt., 2024

During the Chalcolithic period in Cyprus, a fascinating phenomenon is that approximately one in s... more During the Chalcolithic period in Cyprus, a fascinating phenomenon is that approximately one in seven excavated buildings exhibits evidence of significant fires. While the occurrence of burnt buildings is not uncommon in prehistoric communities, this paper takes inspiration from Peter Akkermans’ research to comprehensively outline the various potential archaeological manifestations associated with house burnings to understand the context at hand. It is found that the house fires were part of a structured, recurring practice, that most likely should be interpreted as deliberate and ceremonial in nature. The building biographies show that the structures caught fire when they were no longer serving as domestic structures. It is suggested that the conflagrations were part of a community-wide celebrations, and that the building identity was perhaps of less significance than previously assumed. It is emphasised that for such contexts a data-driven approach should be preferred over one that relies on general theories.

Levant, 2022

Roundhouses from the Cypriot Chalcolithic display substantial size differences, as well as variet... more Roundhouses from the Cypriot Chalcolithic display substantial size differences, as well as variety between use phases. This paper employs a biographical approach to map and interpret the diversity and similarities between these buildings. Buildings from two sites in the southwest of Cyprus are examined for evidence of changes throughout their use lives. In addition, the diachronic relationships between buildings are investigated. The results suggest that within a strict normative framework, buildings were actively used for the expression of both cultural identity, and personal or household status. The manner in which this was achieved was specific to the phase of the house, construction, use or abandonment. While variables employed during construction served to articulate wealth or power differences, the mode of abandonment served as the most potent manifestation of enduring status.

Oxford Journal of Archaeology, 2022

The emergence and nature of social inequality has been the topic of a substantial amount of resea... more The emergence and nature of social inequality has been the topic of a substantial amount of research in recent years, with one group of scholars concluding that social inequality increased significantly with the rise of urbanism on the basis of the application of Gini measures, and another group arguing that social inequalities existed long before urbanism and that not all urban societies were class societies. Here, we present the case of Chalcolithic Cyprus, a decidedly pre-urban period for which we have quantifiable evidence that might indicate social inequality. On the basis of this dataset we will re-evaluate recent postulates on the emergence and nature of social inequality.

Archaeology in the Smallest Realm. Micro analyses and methods for the reconstruction of Cyprus early societies, 2021

The organization of the household and settlements in Chalcolithic Cyprus is traditionally reconst... more The organization of the household and settlements in Chalcolithic Cyprus is traditionally reconstructed through the functional analysis of floor level finds and architectural characteristics such as building size and spatial conventions. The available data set is unfortunately biased towards a few well-preserved, rich contexts, as most excavated buildings are only partly preserved, with few floor level finds. From many buildings only fragments of walls and floors were found. As constructed floors may yield information about the original function of a building, their precise characterization may help in identifying the functional nature of even the fragmentary preserved buildings. At Palloures, recently excavated Chalcolithic floors were sampled for micromorphology to define the materials and methods used in their construction. Results show that floors were made with a variety of tamped earth, clay, limestone and burnt lime recipes. In this paper, the floor types are described and related to the other functional aspects of buildings they were discovered in.

Current Approaches to Tells in the Prehistoric Old World, 2020

Umhlatuzana rockshelter has an occupation sequence spanning the last 70,000 years. It is one of t... more Umhlatuzana rockshelter has an occupation sequence spanning the last 70,000 years. It is one of the few sites with deposits covering the Middle to Later Stone Age transition (~40,000-30,000 years BP) in southern Africa. Comprehending the site's depositional history and occupation sequence is thus important for the broader understanding of the development of Homo sapiens' behavior. The rockshelter was first excavated in the 1980s by Jonathan Kaplan. He suggested that the integrity of the late Middle Stone Age and Later Stone Age sediments was compromised by large-scale sediment movement. In 2018, we initiated a high-resolution geoarchaeological study of the site to clarify the site formation processes. Here, we present the results of the excavation and propose a revised stratigraphic division of the Pleistocene sequence based on field observations , sedimentological (particle size) analyses, and cluster analysis. The taphonomy of the site is assessed through phytolith and geo...

The origins of copper-based metallurgy on the island of Cyprus, which became the main supplier of... more The origins of copper-based metallurgy on the island of Cyprus, which became the main supplier of the metal in the Late Bronze Age in the Mediterranean and whose name became associated with the metal, is relatively obscure. While metal extraction and metal artefacts became increasingly important in the broader Near East, early metallurgy on Cyprus remains poorly known, and it is often postulated that metals were of limited importance on the island prior to the Philia phase. Here we present a unique context from the Late Chalcolithic (ca. 2800-2400 BC) from the excavations at Chlorakas-Palloures that has considerable ramifications for this debate.

The Three Dimensions of Archaeology, 2016

In order to understand how the Assyrians maintained their hegemony in conquered territories it is... more In order to understand how the Assyrians maintained their hegemony in conquered territories it is essential to study how they impacted on and modified pre-existing landscapes and societies. Further, we need to investigate how daily activities, buildings, and material culture constituted the Assyrian state. The data from the Late Bronze Age Dunnu at Tell Sabi Abyad, a settlement almost completely excavated with thousands of in situ finds and an excellent preservation of the buildings, provides an ideal dataset to investigate the Middle Assyrian Empire from a bottom up perspective.
Thus, we are interested in how the Dunnu functioned in the local society and in the empire at large. During the uselife of this agricultural estate its spatial organisation and settlement form is changed substantially, and we would like to investigate what this meant in social terms. These issues are tackled by investigating: first, the distribution of all 9000 artefacts as well as numerous features in order to reconstruct activities and changes therein over time in the Dunnu; and, second, the reconstruction of the built environment in order to access how this facilitated specific types of control and interaction, drawing on space syntax methodologies. Ultimately our investigations will add a bottom up perspective to our understanding of the role of the Dunnu in local society and the empire at large.

The excavations at Tell Sabi Abyad, Syria, have yielded very important remains from the Late Neol... more The excavations at Tell Sabi Abyad, Syria, have yielded very important remains from the Late Neolithic and the Late Bronze Age. The resulting excavation archive covers 30 years of excavation, is unique in nature and of tremendous scientific value. The archive is constituted of many forms, drawings and photographs and is stored in different locations around the world. Because of this, it is largely inaccessible and exceptionally vulnerable to fire or water damage. For this reason, the entire Tell Sabi Abyad archive has been digitized and merged in one large online dataset, opening up data and knowledge from decades of excavating to the entire world.

Lacustrine localities were attractive environments for Palaeolithic hominins, since they provide ... more Lacustrine localities were attractive environments for Palaeolithic hominins, since they provide a large and broad spectrum of resources. Moreover, they are excellent archives that allow for high-resolution environmental, chronological and archaeological analyses. However, these deposits are often subject to complex formation and post-depositional factors, including water-related processes. Evaluating the influence of hydrological processes in site formation is thus essential to more accurately reconstruct the duration, intensity and types of hominin behaviour within these environments. In this paper we present the orientation analysis of archaeological material from the Last Interglacial site Neumark-Nord 2, Germany. Orientation analysis was done using GIS to calculate the orientation of artefact from digital plans of the excavation surface, which were subsequently tested using circular statistics. The results of the orientation analysis are compared with a hydrological model to check the relation between preferred orientations and reconstructed areas of water flow and accumulation. Results suggest that low-energy hydrological processes could have affected certain areas of the find-bearing deposits at Neumark-Nord 2 but, overall, there is no evidence for either high-energy hydrological processes or a significant movement of parts of the archaeological assemblage.

The Cide Archaeological Project: Surveying the Turkish Western Black Sea Region, 2000

The Cide Archaeological Project: Surveying the Turkish Western Black Sea Region, 2000

TMA- Tijdschrift voor Mediterrane Archeologie, 2017

TMA52, 2014

The excavations at Tell Sabi Abyad, Syria, have yielded very important remains from the Late Neol... more The excavations at Tell Sabi Abyad, Syria, have yielded very important remains from the Late Neolithic and the Late Bronze Age. The resulting excavation archive covers 30 years of excavation, is unique in nature and of tremendous scientific value. The archive is constituted of many forms, drawings and photographs and is stored in different locations around the world. Because of this, it is largely inaccessible and exceptionally vulnerable to fire or water damage. For this reason, the entire Tell Sabi Abyad archive has been digitized and merged in one large online dataset, opening up data and knowledge from decades of excavating to the entire world.

50 ANALECTA PRAEHISTORICA LEIDENSIA This volume is themed around the interdependent relationship ... more 50 ANALECTA PRAEHISTORICA LEIDENSIA This volume is themed around the interdependent relationship between humans and the environment, an important topic in the work of Corrie Bakels. How do environmental constraints and opportunities influence human behaviour and what is the human impact on the ecology and appearance of the landscape? And what can archaeological knowledge contribute to the current discussions about the use, arrangement and depletion of our (local) environment?

PIHANS, 2016

Around the year 1230 BC Assyrian forces conquered the area of modern North Syria. To consolidate ... more Around the year 1230 BC Assyrian forces conquered the area of modern North Syria. To consolidate power in the region, and to make use of its agricultural potential, numerous farming settlements were founded. One such settlement, a so-called dunnu, has been discovered and excavated at Tell Sabi Abyad, Syria. The settlement was relatively large and appears to have been heavily fortified. This study investigates the activities carried out in the settlement, and its function, through analysis of the objects found in the various rooms and courtyards. The mode of their deposition is subject to rigorous investigation: were these objects discarded as garbage, or were they left behind during rapid abandonment following some catastrophe?

This approach has resulted in a re-evaluation of the nature and use of the Tell Sabi Abyad dunnu, and has aided in altering the understanding of how the Assyrian Empire consolidated its power in newly conquered areas.

A HUMAN ENVIRONMENT Studies in honour of 20 years Analecta editorship by prof. dr. Corrie Bakels Edited by Victor Klinkenberg, Roos van Oosten & Carol van Driel-Murray | 2020, 2020

This volume is themed around the interdependent relationship between humans and the environment, ... more This volume is themed around the interdependent relationship between humans and the environment, an important topic in the work of Corrie Bakels. How do environmental constraints and opportunities influence human behaviour and what is the human impact on the ecology and appearance of the landscape? And what can archaeological knowledge contribute to the current discussions about the use, arrangement and depletion of our (local) environment?

Read online for free: https://www.sidestone.com/books/a-human-environment

In archaeology, we often find house floors completely littered with objects. It is very tempting ... more In archaeology, we often find house floors completely
littered with objects. It is very tempting to interpret
these as the remains of what happened on that floor.
However, before we can interpret the finds, it is
important to understand how they ended up there.
In my research, I am investigating the Late Bronze Age
fortified settlement of Tell Sabi Abyad in modern Syria.
By looking at the finds which have been left behind I
try to reconstruct what happened there on a day to
day basis. The settlement, a so-called dunnu, has been
abandoned several times in the past. It seems that
during abandonment people dumped masses of
objects on the floors of the houses.
Why did people do this? And how do the objects relate
to the houses they are found in? I try to answer these
questions by modelling all processes which occurred
between the activities in the past and the objects and
architecture we find in the excavation.
The research is carried out using a 3-dimensional GIS
model of the excavated architecture and objects. In
this way, the 3D model is not just a visual
reconstruction but it serves as an important tool for
analysis.

Brief examples of results from micromorphological work at Chlorakas Palloures. Poster presented a... more Brief examples of results from micromorphological work at Chlorakas Palloures. Poster presented at the Workshop for Archaeological Soil Micromorphology in Brussels, 2018

In July-August 2015 the first season of excavation took place at the site of Chlorakas-Pallour... more In July-August 2015 the first season of excavation took place at the site of Chlorakas-Palloures. The site has been known as one of a series of important Chalcolithic sites in the Paphos District from the 1950s onwards, and has been badly disturbed by agricultural development and urbanization of the region from the 1970s onwards. In the face of new development plans of the main section of the site the Department of Antiquities of the Republic of Cyprus wanted rescue excavations to take place prior to this development. It was in this context that the Leiden University expedition to Chlorakas-Palloures was set up in collaboration with the Department of Antiquities.

Introduction to the new fieldwork project at Chlorakas-Palloures, Cyprus.

In this article we report on the taphonomic analysis of several Middle Assyrian tablet clusters t... more In this article we report on the taphonomic analysis of several Middle Assyrian tablet clusters to identify the way these objects ended up in the ground. Rather than in-situ archives that were left behind during some catastrophe, we argue that these tablets were often deliberately discarded. Specifically for the tablet clusters we examined, we propose that they were first temporarily discarded in "office bins. " We claim that the occurrence of clustered, homogenous tablet groups at our sites are the result of the occasional emptying of such bins. The methodology we present could be of value for the analysis of other similar tablet-bearing contexts.

Journal of Cuneiform Studies