María Antonia Padilla Vargas | University of Guadalajara (original) (raw)

Papers by María Antonia Padilla Vargas

Challenges in Creativity & Psychology for the XXI Century, 2019

Setting out from the characterization of creativity in science as the development of novel and ef... more Setting out from the characterization of creativity in science
as the development of novel and effective behaviors
that satisfy the criteria of fluidity, originality, flexibility, and
elaboration, we propose the Training Strategy to Elaborate
Novel and Effective Research Questions (EEEPINE) designed
with the objective of fomenting creative behavior in new researchers.
This strategy has demonstrated its usefulness (it
has been effective for training students at different academic
levels—undergraduate, master’s, doctorate—to elaborate and
justify new research questions) and versatility (having been
used successfully with both individual students and groups
of students simultaneously). Also, it has made it possible to
foment the elaboration and justification of novel, effective
research questions in different disciplinary areas.
Keywords: creativity in science, training new researchers,
elaborating novel and effective research questions

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The term " predictability of reading and writing " refers to the knowledge and skills that pre-ac... more The term " predictability of reading and writing " refers to the knowledge and skills that pre-academic children acquire to " read " and/or " write " in the reading and writing events they are familiar with. The aim of this study was to expose pre-academic children to two different conditions of short story reading and to identify their differential effects on the predictability of reading and writing. Thirty children with a median age of 50 months participated in the study, divided at random in four groups by the type of intervention: GE1 (listening to the reading of the same short story), GE2 (listening to the reading of five short stories, a different one in each session), each one of them with its own control group (CG1 and CG2, manipulating the short story(s) heard by the corresponding experimental group without listening to them). Our results show that after the intervention participants in the experimental groups had a better performance than those in the control groups in including the basic elements of a story, the conventionality of their scribbles, and the complexity of the sentences used to retell the story. The differential effects of the type of exposure to the stories on the predictability of reading and writing are discussed.

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The present study aimed to understand the way the behavior of the audience of creativity changes ... more The present study aimed to understand the way the behavior of the audience of creativity changes by presenting a respondent conditioning training in between tests. 35 undergraduate psychology students were presented with a Q-sort test in order to assess the way the participants organized artistic images from architecture, photography and furniture design. After a first test, participants were presented with a respondent training conditioning where happy faces appeared together with architecture images and sad faces appeared with images of artistic photography and furniture design. A second test was presented after training. The results showed that the participants changed their responses between tests, however, the direction of change couldn't be predicted. These results are discussed in terms of the literature on evaluative conditioning and their implications for future studies with the audience of creativity.

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Several studies have attempted to assess the role of naming in the emergence of equivalence relat... more Several studies have attempted to assess the role of naming in the emergence of equivalence relations, but results are inconsistent; on the one hand, there are reports of equivalence emerging without naming and on the other hand, some authors claim that naming is necessary for equivalence to emerge. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the emergence of equivalence relations in pre-linguistic infants. Five infants aged 11-to-12 months received training in four conditional discriminations (A1-B1, A2-B2, B1-C1, and B2-C2) in order to establish two three-member classes. The participants were tested in reflexivity, symmetry, transitivity and equivalence, and all scored higher than 75% on all tests. On the reflexivity tests, percentages were above 80%; on the symmetry tests, they varied from 75% to 100%; on the transitivity tests, they averaged 75%; while on the equivalence tests results ranged from 87.5% to 100% of correct responses. These results suggest that displaying some degree of expressive language is not necessary for the emergence of equivalence relations.

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El objetivo del presente estudio fue explorar las variables implicadas en la elaboración de resúm... more El objetivo del presente estudio fue explorar las variables implicadas en la elaboración de resúmenes de artículos experimentales, en estudiantes de licenciatura. Para ello se expuso a dos muestras de
alumnos de dicho nivel educativo a una preparación que implicó que seleccionaran, de dos artículos experimentales diferentes, las oraciones que consideraran pertinentes, las ordenaran como creyeran
conveniente y elaboraran su respectivo resumen.
Dado que era un estudio exploratorio no se manipuló ninguna variable. La diferencia entre ambas muestras estribaba en que la Muestra 1 estuvo compuesta por estudiantes regulares de licenciatura
mientras que la Muestra 2 estuvo integrada por becarios de un verano de investigación.
Se decidió trabajar con la Muestra 2 a partir de observar el bajo desempeño de los participantes de la Muestra 1 en la elaboración de resúmenes de artículos experimentales bajo el supuesto de que
los participantes de la Muestra 2 podrían tener un mejor desempeño debido a su mayor interés en las actividades científicas.
Los resultados muestran que la ejecución de ambas muestras fue similar en lo general ya que prácticamente en todos los aspectos identificados el desempeño de la gran mayoría de los participantes
fue bajo.
Los resultados generales del presente estudio coinciden con lo ya encontrado en el área respecto de lo deficiente que es el comportamiento lectoescritor de los estudiantes de este nivel educativo
(Aguilera et al., 2006). Lo que hace indispensable analizar las posibles variables implicadas en la lectoescritura en general y en la técnica en particular. Para ello se sugiere seguir realizando estudios
al respecto empleando la presente estrategia que demostró su utilidad para analizar el fenómeno de la lectoescritura técnica. Pero para continuar con el análisis del área se considera importante empezar a manipular variables que se supone afectan la lectoescritura, como la historia de referencialidad de los participantes, el criterio de logro estipulado para la realización de la tarea.

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Procrastination is defined as the tendency to delay the performance of tasks that have a deadline... more Procrastination is defined as the tendency to delay the performance of tasks that have a deadline date. Between 70 and 95% of university students procrastinate occasionally, and 20-40% do so chronically. Procrastination affects both people's health and the quality of their work. The objective of the present study was to identify whether Mexican researchers in psychology procrastinate (no similar studies were found during a literature review), and determine the academic, work-related and health effects of this behavior. A total of 221 Mexican psychology researchers participated, 91 men and 131 women, aged 20-65 years (by answering an on-line questionnaire designed ex profeso). Results showed the following: 91% of respondents reported procrastinating; the activity with the highest levels of procrastination was writing reports and/or academic articles (63%); 29% reported that procrastination generated anxiety; 42% observed that it damages their health; 18% mentioned that procrastinating reduced the quality of their work; and 17% reported that it had had many negative effects on their lives. This article discusses the importance of identifying the factors that propitiate academic procrastination given the negative effects of this behavior on researchers' health and work quality.

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The study of Creativity from the standpoint of the Audience (e.g., any person that assesses a pro... more The study of Creativity from the standpoint of the Audience (e.g., any person that assesses a product as creative) has not been addressed yet from a naturalistic perspective in terms of the reactions of the individual according to the cultural group he/she belongs to. In this paper, a cultural group is defined as a group of individuals that have similar reactions to a stimulus (i.e., considering architectural objects as more creative than other objects). The present study presents a way to study Creativity from an interbehavioral standpoint by utilizing Q Methodology to capture the interaction between the Audience and the object. Thirty Participants (15 females and 15 males) from different occupations (art, science and various trades) were asked to organize sixty pictures (architecture, photography and furniture) in a Q-sort in terms of how creative they considered the picture was with respect to the others. The responses were grouped by three factors: photography preference, furniture preference and preference for architectural products. The results showed that the responses of the participants grouped them independently of their occupation or gender; showing specific tendencies on which objects they valued as most creative. Results are discussed in terms of how the factors represent the different cultural groups present in the participants' sample, and their relation with previous research on the behavior of the Audience. The present results show promise of the use of the Q Methodology in the research of the behavior of the Audience from a naturalistic perspective.

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La importancia de la formación de nuevos investigadores Formar nuevos investigadores es fundament... more La importancia de la formación de nuevos investigadores Formar nuevos investigadores es fundamental tanto para el desarrollo como para el fortalecimiento de la ciencia, sobre todo en un país como México en el que actualmente el promedio de edad de los científicos activos supera los 45 años de edad, por lo que se considera prioritario preparar a nuevos investigadores que en su momento puedan reemplazar a los que se vayan jubilando. Pero no sólo es importante formar nuevos investigadores para suplir a los que se jubilen, sino para subsanar las deficiencias que en tal aspecto tiene el país. ¿Por qué es relevante elaborar nuevas preguntas de investigación? Según algunos estudiosos de la ciencia, el objetivo central de la formación de investigadores es lograr que los nuevos científicos demuestren independencia intelectual respecto de sus formadores; y uno de los criterios más importantes para considerar que un investigador ha alcanzado dicha independencia es que sea capaz de plantear sus propias preguntas de investigación, las cuales deben ser innovadoras, pertinentes, relevantes, viables, útiles y sobre todo, derivadas de lo que hasta ese momento se conozca respecto de la disciplina particular en la que el nuevo investigador esté realizando su trabajo, dado que el objetivo último de la ciencia es que el conocimiento que cada científico genere contribuya al desarrollo y fortalecimiento de un área determinada, es decir, el trabajo que cada investigador realiza no debe ser aislado o fragmentado, sino contribuir a solidificar su área disciplinar. Pero se ha observado que a pesar de la importancia que tiene dicha actividad para el desarrollo y fortalecimiento de cualquier disciplina científica, al revisar la literatura del tema, destaca el hecho de que no se han realizado análisis sistemáticos al respecto. De hecho, en realidad no se ha estudiado a profundidad la formación de nuevos investigadores, ni los aspectos relacionados con la elaboración y fundamentación de preguntas de preguntas de investigación, lo que es particularmente preocupante dada su importancia para la generación, desarrollo y difusión del conocimiento. Derivar preguntas de investigación del cuerpo de conocimiento de un área particular implica leer lo que se haya escrito respecto de un tema específico. Ello requiere el ejercicio de habilidades lectoras, sin embargo, algunos estudios (Arroyo, Canales, Morales, Silva & Carpio, 2007; Irigoyen, Jiménez & Acuña, 2004) que han analizado ese aspecto han encontrado que, en general, los alumnos de pre y posgrado tienen un desempeño lector deficiente, sobretodo todo al leer textos técnicos, que son los que deben revisarse en este caso. Por otra parte, al proponer una nueva pregunta de investigación es indispensable fundamentarla adecuadamente, lo que requiere el ejercicio de habilidades escritoras, las cuales, según diferentes estudios, tampoco se ejercitan en un nivel aceptable (González-Torres, Padilla & Tamayo, 2011; Pacheco, Ramírez, Palestina & Salazar, 2007; Padilla, Solórzano & Pacheco, 2009; Padilla, Suro & Tamayo, 2010; Padilla, Tamayo & González, 2010; Tamayo, Padilla & González-Torres, 2009). Dado que diferentes estudios han mostrado que en estudiantes de educación media y superior el comportamiento lectoescritor es deficiente, y que a pesar de ello no existe en los planes curriculares un programa orientado a auspiciar habilidades en tal sentido, se propone la presente estrategia de entrenamiento que puede coadyuvar para lograr dicho objetivo. Concretamente en la lectoescritura de materiales técnicos, y sobre todo, en la elaboración de preguntas de investigación novedosas. La estrategia de entrenamiento aquí propuesta es el resultado del análisis sistemático respecto de las variables implicadas en la generación de preguntas de investigación novedosas, pertinentes y derivadas de un área concreta de trabajo. Esta estrategia ha demostrado su utilidad (fue efectiva para entrenar a elaborar y fundamentar nuevas preguntas de investigación a estudiantes de diferentes niveles académicos) así como su versatilidad; se ha empleado con éxito tanto de manera individual (con un solo alumno) como colectiva (con varios estudiantes simultáneamente). Incluso desde hace más de tres años se está utilizando exitosamente con estudiantes de licenciatura de escuelas tanto públicas como privadas, como una estrategia que les permite mejorar sus habilidades lectoescritoras de materiales técnicos (artículos experimentales en este caso). Una ventaja adicional de la presente propuesta es que puede implementarse como taller teórico-práctico, con el objetivo de lograr mejoras en el desempeño, así como con fines de investigación: probándola con grupos experimentales y control, por ejemplo, podría utilizarse para analizar su eficiencia como una estrategia de entrenamiento para elaborar preguntas de investigación en áreas diferentes a la que se ha probado hasta ahora (en psicología experimental), como por ejemplo, en biología, en química, etc., haciendo las adecuaciones del caso; cambiando los textos empleados, etc.
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Procrastination has gained relevance over the years for its effects on education, health, and dai... more Procrastination has gained relevance over the years for its effects on education, health, and daily life in general. However, despite its importance, it has not been studied systematically. We examined the effect of response cost on procrastination in humans. Twelve engineering undergraduate students, between 18 and 20 years of age, were randomly assigned to an experimental and a control group. The task consisted in indicating by clicking one of two buttons whether the amount of green dots presented on the computer screen was larger or smaller than the amount of blue dots. Throughout the experiment, participants were allowed to engage in distracting activities while performing the task. Three response cost conditions comprised the experiment, one with a high response cost (200 exercises) and two with a low response cost (100 exercises). There does not seem to be a systematic effect of response requirement on procrastination. However, some participants procrastinated regardless of the condition to which they were exposed, whereas others never did it, which suggests that procrastination is an interactive style. We discuss the need for more studies in order to identify the variables related to the phenomenon.

Keywords: procrastination, response cost, distractors, interactive style, undergraduate students.

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La presente investigación fue un estudio exploratorio realizado con el objetivo de identificar la... more La presente investigación fue un estudio exploratorio realizado con el objetivo de identificar las variables que podrían afectar la elaboración de resúmenes de artículos experimentales. Participaron 45 estudiantes de licenciatura en psicología: 21 (Muestra 1) de entre 20 y 27 años (18 mujeres y 3 hombres), y 24 becarios de un verano de investigación (Muestra 2) estudiantes de diferentes licenciaturas (15 de psicología, 4 de ciencias de la educación, 2 de enfermería, 1 de educación para la salud, 1 de veterinaria y 1 de biología) provenientes de distintas universidades del país. Estos tenían entre 19 y 31 años (17 mujeres y 7 hombres). De dos artículos experimentales diferentes los participantes debían seleccionar las oraciones que consideraran pertinentes, ordenarlas como creyeran conveniente y elaborar su respectivo resumen. La mayoría de los participantes de ambas muestras tuvieron un bajo desempeño, incluso hubo varios sujetos que decrementaron su ejecución del Resumen 1 al 2. En ambas muestras se observó el mismo número de participantes (3) que mejoraron drásticamente de la elaboración del Resumen 1 al 2. Lo que hizo diferente a ambas muestras fue que en la Muestra 2 tres participantes tuvieron un buen desempeño desde el Resumen 1 y lo mantuvieron así en el Resumen 2. Los resultados se discuten en términos de la importancia que tienen para la formación de nuevos investigadores en psicología las competencias lectoescritoras en este caso, de textos técnicos (e.g., resúmenes de artículos experimentales).

Palabras clave: competencias lectoescritoras, artículos experimentales, elaboración de resúmenes, universitarios.

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This study evaluated the effects of three types of training models on the learning and transfer o... more This study evaluated the effects of three types of training models on the learning and transfer of a second-order matching-to-sample task. Thirty psychology students (15 Mexicans and 15 Colombians) took part. Each sample was divided into three experimental conditions: training by exposure to an expert model, learner model or anti-expert model. The results show that: (a) in both samples, performances in transfer and learning tests are significantly higher than those obtained in the pre-tests; (b) best performances were found in tests of learning andtransfer for groups with exposure to the expert model; (c) the anti-expert model condition produced lower percentages of correct answers on tests of learning and transfer; (d) performancein extra-relational tests were the lowest in transfer tests; and (e) the ratio of relationshipsconstructed was homogeneous in the construction test. These findings are discussed in terms ofthe identification of some factors involved in the establishment of abstract stimulus control bymodelling, and the effect of the conditions of remuneration on performance in experimentalproblem-solving tasks.

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Revista de Educación y Desarrollo, 2016

We investigated whether a behavioral change could result from exposing participants either to an ... more We investigated whether a behavioral change could result from exposing participants either to an attributional linguistic passage or to a descriptive linguistic passage. Forty-five participants from three different populations took part in this study: two samples of undergraduate students (psychologists and engineers) and a sample of elementary school students. Each sample was divided into three groups, exposed to an attribution, a description or nothing. We assessed the congruent behavioral change in participants' responses, defined as a change that matched the contents of the linguistic passage to which they were exposed, prior and after exposure to the passages. Exposing participants to an attribution changed the way they interacted with the situation, unlike participants from the other groups. Se analizó si se observaba un cambio conductual como efecto de exponerse a un segmento lingüístico atribu-tivo o a uno descriptivo. Participaron 45 estudiantes de tres poblaciones diferentes: dos de licenciatura (psicólo-gos e ingenieros) y una de primaria. Los participantes se distribuyeron en tres grupos: dos experimentales, expuestos a una atribución (Grupo 1) o a una descripción (Grupo 2), o a nada (Grupo control). Se evaluó el cambio conductual congruente en las respuestas de los participantes entre los momentos uno (antes de exponerse a la atri-bución o a la descripción) y dos (después de tal exposición), definido como un cambio que guardara correspon-dencia con el contenido del segmento lingüístico al que se expusiera a los participantes, según el grupo al que pertenecieran. Los resultados mostraron que exponerse a una atribución afectó la manera en la que los partici-pantes interactuaron con la situación entre ambos momentos, ya que todos cambiaron su comportamiento, a diferencia de los demás. Descriptores: Cambio conductual, Segmento lingüístico atributivo, Segmento lingüístico descriptivo, Universitarios, Alumnos de primaria.

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Recently, many cases of scientific malpractice have been reported, and their severity has resulte... more Recently, many cases of scientific malpractice have been reported, and their severity has resulted in the dismissal of those involved, the rescission of academic degrees, expulsion from academic organizations, and even prison sentences. Because it is essential to provide ethical training to people involved in scientific research, the objective of this paper is to describe the ethical guidelines that everyone who conducts experiments in psychology must observe, especially when human participants are involved. These guidelines are also applicable to authors of scientific papers. Our goal is to contribute to ensuring the ethical performance of scientific work. Also, in an effort to eradicate scientific malpractice, we propose implementing a three-pronged strategy: first, working with academic institutions (universities, research centers, etc.) to provide ongoing training in the ethical aspects of the discipline in question to all personnel involved in scientific work (researchers, technicians, professors, students); second, designing strategies for constant, close supervision to guarantee that all scientific activities adhere to the applicable ethical standards; and, third, defining mechanisms to establish and then apply sanctions in the event of scientific malpractice, including the creation of organs entrusted with organizing and implementing these activities.

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Revista Latinoamericana de Psicología, 2016

This study evaluated the effects of three types of modeling on the learning and transfer in a sec... more This study evaluated the effects of three types of modeling on the learning and transfer in a second-order matching-to-sample task. Thirty psychology students (15 Mexicans and 15 Colombians) partook. Each sample was divided into three experimental conditions: training by exposure to an expert model, learner model or anti-expert model. The results show that: (a) in both samples, performances in transfer and learning tests are significantly higher than those obtained in the pre-tests; (b) best performances were found in tests of learning and transfer for groups with exposure to the expert model; (c) the anti-expert model condition produced lower percentages of correct answers on tests of learning and transfer; (d) performance in extra-relational tests were the lowest in transfer tests; and (e) the ratio of relations constructed was homogeneous in the construction test. These findings are discussed in terms of the identification of some factors involved in establishment of abstract stimulus control by modeling, and the effect of the conditions of remuneration on performance in experimental problem-solving tasks.

Keywords: modeling, matching-to-sample, abstract stimulus control, transfer.

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El 5 de febrero de 2017 se conmemorarán 100 años de la promulgación de laConstitución Política de... more El 5 de febrero de 2017 se conmemorarán 100 años de la promulgación de laConstitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos, ello brinda una excelente oportunidad para analizar si, a un siglo de su promulgación, el artículo tercero constitucional ha respondido a las necesidades educativas de los mexicanos. En el presente trabajo se analiza la pertinencia, alcance, eficacia y eficiencia del artículo tercero, y con base en eso se hace una propuesta de reforma de algunos de sus elementos constituyentes.
Palabras clave: Análisis, pertinencia, eficiencia, Artículo tercero constitucional, necesidades educativas, mexicanos.

On February 5, 2017 we will commemorate 100 years of the promulgation of the Constitution of the United Mexican States, which provides an excellent opportunity to discuss whether, a century after its enactment, the third constitutional article has satified the educational needs of the Mexicans. In this paper, the relevance, scope, effectiveness and efficiency of the third constitutional article is analyzed, and based on that a proposal to reform some of its constituent elements is made.
Keywords: Analysis, relevance, efficiency, Article three constitutional,educational needs, Mexicans.

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La Revista Electrónica “Revista Internacional PEI”, es una publicación SEMESTRAL de carácter aca... more La Revista Electrónica “Revista Internacional PEI”, es una publicación SEMESTRAL de carácter académico, producida por Psicología y Educación Integral A.C.; la cual se coloca a disposición de los Docentes, Investigadores, Profesionales y Estudiantes de la comunidad nacional e internacional interesados en el área PSICOLÓGICA Y EDUCATIVA. Siendo posible visitarla en el sitio:

http://www.peiac.org/Revista/revistapei.html

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A factual statement describes what has happened, while a counterfactual statement makes contraryt... more A factual statement describes what has happened, while a counterfactual statement makes contraryto-fact affirmations, such as alternatives to events that occurred (e.g., If I had been more disciplined, I would have managed to turn the article in on time”). The purpose of the current research was to identify the effects of counterfactual formulation on matching behavior when counterfactual statements are produced in repeated occasions. Thirty-five university students participated, distributed at random into five groups that were exposed to the formulation of factual statements, counterfactual statements, free text, auditory interference or nothing. The results showed that the production of counterfactual statements improved performance in the task, while interference made it more difficult; results from the other conditions were not significant in this respect. This finding suggests that the production of counterfactual statements may enhance control by the elements of the task and that the abstraction of a rule may not be the critical variable responsible for the effects of the counterfactual production. Key words: counterfactuals, rules, specificity, pertinence, second-order matching-to-sample, university students

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Challenges in Creativity & Psychology for the XXI Century, 2019

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Keywords: procrastination, response cost, distractors, interactive style, undergraduate students.

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Palabras clave: competencias lectoescritoras, artículos experimentales, elaboración de resúmenes, universitarios.

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Revista de Educación y Desarrollo, 2016

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Revista Latinoamericana de Psicología, 2016

Keywords: modeling, matching-to-sample, abstract stimulus control, transfer.

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http://www.peiac.org/Revista/revistapei.html

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Challenges in Creativity & Psychology for the XXI Century, 2019

Creativity is a path, a destiny, and an origin. For some it is intangible, but as an object of st... more Creativity is a path, a destiny, and an origin. For some it is intangible, but
as an object of study it can be measured, analyzed, modified . . . and also promoted. Perhaps it is this latter aspect that makes the most sense in this text. This book brings together the leading scholars in the study of creativity, while at the same time giving entry to young researchers who are at the start of their journey in this field or who are using creativity to generate innovative applications in their respective fields of Psychology. This is what makes this book so diverse and original. It is not confined to one field, nor is it intended for one type of specialist. Creativity is the thread that runs through it; sometimes
as a source, sometimes as a path, sometimes as a destination.
Like everything cognitive, creativity has biological, cultural, and psychological components. Biology narrows it down, culture enriches it, and psychology sets it apart. Biology is the framework that regulates the boundaries of association. Culture drives the meanings that allow us to transgress (or not) the said borders. But it is in the psychological aspect where creativity truly differentiates itself. It is in this dimension that its deepest nature is found. The dimensioning of biology and the enrichment or mediation that culture can offer are highly relevant to the creative phenomenon. However, it is in the psychological field where creativity reaches its fullest dimension, and perhaps it is here where it originates: Its cognitive, emotional, and motivational
components can be found here, the components that drive, forge,
and originate it. These building blocks can be summarized, with some theoretical considerations, in the psychological construct known as the creative attitude: a conglomerate of evaluations, affections, and primarily flexible behaviors that are tenacious and proactive under uncertainty and are oientednges in Creativity & Psychology for the XXI
to the generation of socially or individually relevant ideas or actions
(Penagos-Corzo, 2014). Thus, it is likely that this creative attitude has been an important aspect in the participation of the authors of Challenges in Creativity and Psychology for the XXI Century, and we also hope that it will be present to some extent in our prospective readers.
As an object of psychological study, creativity has led to the identification of characteristic behaviors and thought styles. It has made it possible to develop instruments to measure it, while thousands of words have been written in relation to it. From a psychological point of view, creativity is studied to be understood, predicted, and controlled.
Creativity is an elusive construct. Its standard definition generally involves originality and utility (Runco and Jaeger, 2012). However, when it comes to embracing it in its entirety, few approaches to creativity are parsimonious. By not considering the principle of parsimony, the complexity of the object of study overflows; it becomes elusive and probably ends up not being studied at all. A parsimonious approach may contain the simplicity of Guilford’s (1950) proposal or may describe its cognitive, socio-affective, and physical components (Hadani, Fortescue, Rood, & Runco, 2014): (a) imagination and originality,
(b) flexibility, (c) decision-making, (d) communication and self-expression, (e) collaboration, (f) motivation, and (g) action and movement.
The principle of parsimony represents a great challenge, as the scientific
approaches to creativity are so diverse that they may even appear to speak different languages. In this sense, Hennessey and Amabile (2010), in a review of the relevant literature, point out that the approximations (or interrelationships of forces) to the comprehension of the creative phenomenon can be considered as a series of concentric circles in which the most internal is the neurological force followed, in ascending order, by affection and cognition, the individual and the personality, the group, the social environment, society, and culture until finally reaching systemic approximations. This categorization is probably more useful than the classification originally proposed by Rhodes (1961): person, process, and product. The concentric circles described by Hennessey and Amabile are a representation of the levels of analysis of the creative phenomenon. They also represent the way in which forces operate or interact. Finding elements that bind variables that can be
linked in a solid way is likely to lead to greater parsimony. For this reason, it is worth highlighting the chapters of our guest authors, Marc Runco and Manuela Romo; their approaches are undoubtedly contributions that both synthesize and expand. These are parsimonious visions of creativity, visions that are doubly appreciated: once for their contribution and twice for the fact that they were created for this book.
As virtually any thought process does, the generation of creative
ideas requires a certain amount of association. Perhaps what makes this process unique in creativity is that the association is given unconventionally, and perhaps with some degree of over-inclusion (Schmajuk, Aziz, & Bates, 2009).
However, it is also important to note that data on over-inclusion in creative thinking may be contradictory (Ottemiller, Elliott, & Giovannetti, 2014). Even so, it is widely accepted that the creative process requires openness and flexibility.
In both cases, a type of associative effort is fundamental, which in the
absence of a better word I will call “inclusive.”
In fact, if we were figuratively speaking about creativity, we would
call it inclusion. Inclusion is more than a metaphor for creativity, it is its
greatest encouragement and maximum expression, for inclusion means to listen to what is different, to dialogue with what is different, to encounter what is different, and in some way to merge with what is different. It is its maximum expression because it is the best example of what is human and reflects creativity as the greatest expression of a human capacity: Unlike creating from nothing, it is to create from something, from the union of what is
different. In other words, to create is to include.
Inclusion is a word with a social meaning. Inclusion is spoken of
when, for example, people with disabilities are incorporated into a school
or company, or when spaces for diversity are opened up. Inclusion becomes a sign of a society that respects, integrates, incorporates, and probably goes further than those that do not. Thus, a human dimension is the same as a creative dimension.
For all of the above reasons, this book is inclusive and embraces diverse
approaches and challenges of creativity in its first part, which are translated into creative approaches in applied psychology in its second part.

Challenges in Creativity & Psychology for the XXI Century
It is important to mention that the book was conceived as a work to be
presented in the framework of the 75th anniversary celebration of the University of the Americas Puebla. However, the vicissitudes of a changing world altered our deadlines and even part of the original proposal, although the essential aspect remains: sharing expert visions alongside young, inclusive, and diverse proposals. The final version of this book was made possible due to the participation of our co-editor, Antonia Padilla, and the University of Guadalajara, which allowed our particular challenge to become a reality.
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to the authors who contributed to this book: Robert Sternberg, Howard Gardner, James Kaufman, Mark Runco, Keith Sawyer, Margaret Boden, and Manuela Romo. They are the undisputed leaders in the study of creativity, the promoters and motivators of knowledge. Without knowing it, they were essential for this book to see the light of day. Their generous contributions to this book, as well as their far-sightedness, will always be an incentive to explore new paths and face new challenges.

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La ciencia, por su gran importancia para el hombre, ha sido objeto de estudio en diversos niveles... more La ciencia, por su gran importancia para el hombre, ha sido objeto de estudio en diversos niveles de análisis: filosóficos, sociológicos, históricos y recientemente psicológicos, entre otros. Sin embargo, se ha analizado poco el impacto que la práctica científica individual tiene en el desarrollo de la ciencia. Se sabe muy poco acerca de los procesos psicológicos que se ven involucrados en el quehacer científico, así como de las prácticas conductuales particulares implicadas en éste. Autores como Latour y Woolgar (1986), Fleck (1986), Hempel (1986) y Gruber (1984) intentaron realizar estudios que reconstruyeran los principales factores involucrados en la génesis y desarrollo de algunos descubrimientos científicos, pero llevar a cabo dichos análisis resultó complicado debido a que los científicos no acostumbran llevar un registro de las actividades realizadas durante su práctica científica. Descubrieron que con lo único con que se contaba para la realización de dicho análisis era con los productos finales de las investigaciones, es decir, con la publicación de los resultados en artículos científicos o libros de texto, los cuales no mostraban detalles del proceso mediante el cual se había obtenido el producto final. Y vale destacar que los análisis llevados a cabo por tales autores no fueron estudios empíricos, sino intentos a posteriori de reconstrucción del proceso de generación de conocimiento. Dado lo anterior, algunos autores (Ribes, Moreno y Padilla, 1996) han propuesto un nivel de análisis psicológico complementario a los que se han realizado en esta área, en el cual se analice la práctica científica como variación individual del “método científico” bajo condicionantes lógicos, culturales y sociales. Ello debido a que según dichos autores cada investigador le imprime su propia idiosincrasia a los proyectos en los que trabaja, aunque sin dejar de ser profundamente influenciado por el contexto social y cultural en el que está inmerso dicho investigador, dado que todos los científicos pertenecen a una comunidad académica regida por los criterios definidos por los científicos dominantes de la disciplina en un momento histórico en particular. La formación de las comunidades científicas ocurre a partir de la organización formal o informal de un grupo de investigadores que interactúan entre sí para lograr objetivos más o menos comunes bajos supuestos teóricos y metodológicos similares. Los miembros de dichas comunidades no necesitan trabajar en espacios físicos compartidos para considerarse parte de un cierto grupo ya que la comunicación entre ellos puede ser por diseminación de trabajos de investigación, a través de la revisión de artículos publicados en revistas científicas, libros, o asistiendo a conferencias o congresos en los que las investigaciones son presentadas, y donde las ideas respecto de éstas son intercambiadas y debatidas. Existen además muchos métodos informales de comunicación de trabajos científicos así como de los resultados de éstos. Dicha comunicación puede ser personal o a través de terceros. Históricamente, los científicos han usado una gran variedad de métodos para determinar quién pertenece o no a su comunidad científica. Ello es generalmente requerido para determinar qué campos de investigación pueden ser considerados como "científicos" o “pseudocientíficos” (campos de conocimiento que aparentan ser científicos pero que, al ser juzgados con las normas de la comunidad científica, no lo son) (Latour y Woolgar, 1986). Una comunidad científica que pretenda llegar a un conocimiento especializado acerca de un evento u objeto del mundo particular debe organizarse de tal manera que propicie entre sus miembros un estilo de pensamiento que supere la capacidad individual, con la finalidad de que pueda construir una teoría que logre ir mas allá del conocimiento popular existente respecto del fenómeno estudiado (Fleck, 1986). Tales estilos de pensamiento no son estáticos, pueden transformarse y modificarse en la medida en la que tengan lugar nuevos descubrimientos o se propongan teorías revolucionarias (Kuhn, 1977) que obliguen a la comunidad a modificar sus concepciones respecto de los hechos de interés. Los cambios en los estilos de pensamiento son propiciados por la generación de conocimiento, así como por la incorporación de nuevos miembros al grupo, los cuales, con sus ideas y prácticas novedosas afectan la práctica profesional de los miembros de la comunidad académica a la cual se insertan (Fleck, 1986). Ello permite, a partir de la comparación de la forma de trabajo propia con la de los otros investigadores, enriquecer la práctica científica, proceso que se logra a través de la comunicación e interacción entre los miembros de las diversas comunidades científicas, ya sea que pertenezcan al mismo campo de estudio o a otros afines. Con el objeto de identificar la forma en la que la práctica de un investigador se ve afectada por los otros integrantes de su comunidad, en el presente trabajo se analizan las interacciones ocurridas entre los miembros de un equipo de trabajo que realizaba estudios de psicología experimental, en el área de investigación de conducta humana, durante el desarrollo de un proyecto, así como las estrategias empleadas por los expertos del grupo para entrenar a los aprendices. En el primer capítulo se discute la importancia de abordar el desarrollo científico a través del análisis de la práctica científica individual. En el segundo capítulo se describe detalladamente una estrategia diseñada para analizar cómo un experto en ciencia forma a nuevos investigadores. Se detalla el procedimiento empleado para el análisis de los efectos que tuvieron las interacciones ocurridas entre los diferentes investigadores que participaban en el proyecto de investigación en el desarrollo de éste, así como en la formación de los aprendices del grupo. Los datos obtenidos evidencian que el desarrollo de la ciencia es un proceso dinámico y flexible (Lakatos, 1983), que se ve influenciado por los resultados que se van obteniendo mientras el proyecto está en proceso, así como por los efectos de las interacciones que ocurren entre los integrantes del equipo de investigación (Westrum, 1989). Se identificó que la principal estrategia que empleó el experto del grupo para formar a los aprendices de su equipo de trabajo fue la de integrarlos como un miembro más del grupo haciéndolos responsables del desarrollo de un proyecto de investigación real, lo que les implicó participar en la realización de todas y cada una de las fases que la realización del proyecto requería. Se observó cómo el experto fue modulando el desempeño de los aprendices a partir de la constante retroalimentación que les daba respecto de cada una de las actividades que debían llevar a cabo, así como de la corrección de los errores que cometían. Finalmente, en el tercer capítulo se analizan las implicaciones de los resultados obtenidos en la presente investigación para la pedagogía de la ciencia, a partir de la discusión de las propuestas de diversos autores que han analizado el fenómeno de la formación de investigadores.

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Answering the question of which criteria are best to identify a good researcher is highly complex... more Answering the question of which criteria are best to identify a good researcher is highly complex owing to the broad range of factor involved in the scientific practice. Some criteria are institutional, while others may be specific to a scientific community or even personal. On the one hand, some may argue that being capable of publishing autonomously (or at least independently of advisers) and of posing novel, useful, viable, and pertinent research questions are the main criteria by which a researcher should be judged. On the other hand, because publications may result in financial benefits to the author, they are not a good criterion to assess the academic value of a researcher. We do know however that academic training has not received sufficient attention by psychologists. Investigation on this topic has been conducted mainly by sociologists and educators, using ethnographic and descriptive methodologies. Psychological studies are scarce, fragmented and unconnected. Given the importance of producing and spreading knowledge, of conducting novel research, and of training novice researchers to replace retiring academics (in Mexico, at least, the average active scientist is roughly 47 years old), it becomes important to analyze at least one element that might make a good researcher: posing novel, pertinent questions derived from a specific line of research. While in the process of analyzing this topic, the relationship between the ability to pose research questions and the skills involved in posing non-academic questions became apparent, and received a more in-depth analysis. We tried to sum up the results of these investigations and their conclusions in this book. Three chapters comprise this book. In the first, we describe two studies that were carried out with high school students. We evaluated whether high school students were able to pose novel research questions M. A. Padilla xvi Vargas, J. Tamayo and M. L. González-Torres based on technical material they had previously read (Experiment 1) or whether they were able to pose non-academic questions without having to master a particular line of research (Experiment 2). Results showed that performance was poor with both types of questions and suggested that we might need to take a step back and analyze more basic skills such as reading comprehension and writing before exploring research questions per se. Given these results, in another study, described in Chapter 2, we provided participants with differential information regarding the achievement criteria (defined as the criteria a particular performance must meet or to which it must adjust) when posing non-academic questions, that is, related to daily life, for which no specific training is required. Because high school students did not seem to be the most appropriate population for the study of academic and no-academic questions, we conducted this second experiment with high school, undergraduate, and graduate students and found that more specific achievement criteria facilitated the production of a greater number of questions, which also were more pertinent to the daily situations we presented. Higher-level students performed better and high-school students again were not capable of posing non-academic questions, even when they were given a specific achievement criterion. Chapter 3 describes a series of studies, conducted with undergraduate and graduate students and experienced researchers, whose objective was to evaluate explicitly the variables that affect the production of research questions. The standard experimental protocol consisted of two groups (experimental and control), which were exposed to a pre-assessment, two exercises with or without corrective training, and a post-assessment (control groups were not given any training). Participants were required to derive a novel and pertinent research question from a series of empirical articles and justify it properly (preand post-assessments), to identify some of their elements (Exercise 1), or elaborate on them (Exercise 2). The empirical articles could either be used as they were published or be modified in some of their elements to make them “unstructured”, so we could evaluate whether this changes affected performance. Results of the studies conducted so far have shown that the performance of undergraduate and graduate students initially is poor, but with adequate training, especially corrective, it improves substantially from pre- to post-assessments. Experienced researchers Introduction xvii perform well from the start and their performance is not affected by how unstructured the texts are, contrary to what happened with the students. The most remarkable finding to us is that both undergraduate and graduate students have poor reading and writing skills. Most are not used to reading technical materials, and find it hard to interact with them (even with corrective training, some are not able to obtain more than 60% of correct answers). Because research questions are derived from the comprehensive reading of empirical articles, it is understandable that this task can be arduous and sometimes impossible for them. Moreover, when required to justify the proposed research question, which implies writing skills, an intimate relationship between reading and writing is observed: 1) skilled readers turn out to be skilled writers and vice versa, and 2) improvements in one skill, brought about by training, relate to improvements in the other skill. With this book, we wish to help training more and better researchers. Also, by presenting a detailed description of our methodology, we wish to propose a way to study this topic experimentally, so we can gather systematic data on the variables the affect the performance of researchers, both novice and expert.

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En esta obra se propone una estrategia de entrenamiento, resultado del análisis sistemático respe... more En esta obra se propone una estrategia de entrenamiento, resultado del análisis sistemático respecto de las variables implicadas en la generación de preguntas de investigación novedosas, pertinentes y derivadas de un área concreta de trabajo. Esta estrategia ha demostrado su utilidad (fue efectiva para entrenar a estudiantes de diferentes niveles académicos en la elaboración y fundamentación de nuevas preguntas de investigación) así como su versatilidad; se ha empleado con éxito tanto de manera individual como colectiva. Incluso, se ha utilizado exitosamente con estudiantes de licenciatura de escuelas tanto públicas como privadas, como una estrategia que les permite mejorar sus habilidades lectoescritoras de materiales técnicos (artículos experimentales en este caso).

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En el presente libro se incluyen los avances en la investigación de las líneas de generaci... more En el presente libro se incluyen los avances en la investigación de las líneas de generación de conocimiento de los miembros del Sistema Mexicano de Investigación en Psicología (SMIP), organizadas en 6 áreas de conocimiento: 1) Comportamiento animal, 2) Psicología Experimental Humana, 3) Comportamiento Alimentario y Nutrición, 4) Psicología Educativa, 5) Psicofisiología, Psicobiología y Neuropsicología y 6) Procesos Psicosociales, Clínica y Salud. Los trabajos incluidos en la presente obra se han organizado en tres partes dada su naturaleza; la Parte I, conformada por 3 capítulos que incluyen investigación realizada en el ámbito de la investigación básica: en el Capítulo 1 se incluye investigación en Comportamiento Animal; en el Capítulo 2, investigación en Comportamiento Humano; mientras que en el Capítulo 3, investigación en Psicofisiología, Psicobiología y Neurofisiología.
Por otro lado, la Parte II consta de 3 capítulos en los que se incluye investigación básica, puente y aplicada: en el Capítulo 4 se muestra investigación en Conducta Alimentaria y Nutrición; en el Capítulo 5, investigación en Psicología Educativa; y en el Capítulo 6, investigación en Procesos Psicosociales, Clínica y Salud. Finalmente, la Parte III incluye el Capítulo 7 con las conclusiones y una prospectiva del libro y sus propuestas. Una de las virtudes de la presente obra es que los trabajos que la componen están siendo realizados por grupos (en muchas ocasiones compuestos por investigadores de diferentes instituciones) y no por investigadores particulares, prueba de la valiosa colaboración que está teniendo actualmente lugar entre investigadores. Además de que son de investigadores de prácticamente todas las instituciones en las que actualmente se realiza investigación en psicología en México. Y dado que se trata de avances, las investigaciones que integran la presente obra son de gran actualidad; son trabajos que contribuyen al desarrollo y fortalecimiento de la psicología en México y en el mundo.

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El presente trabajo está dirigido a todos aquéllos involucrados en el proceso de enseñanza-aprend... more El presente trabajo está dirigido a todos aquéllos involucrados en el proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje de la ciencia: profesores, alumnos, pedagogos, investigadores, etc. El principal objetivo es que este material pueda fungir como una especie de guía de pedagogía de la ciencia, para quienes trabajen en áreas relacionadas con el entrenamiento de competencias científicas a nivel medio, superior y postgrado.

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Acta Colombiana de Psicología, 2015

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