Bjarne O Braastad | Norwegian University of Life Sciences (original) (raw)

Papers by Bjarne O Braastad

Occupational Therapy in Mental Health, 2011

Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 1998

This article is a review of research on effects of stress experienced by pregnant females on the ... more This article is a review of research on effects of stress experienced by pregnant females on the sex-ratio, behaviour and reproductive success of their offspring. Implications of such effects for the behaviour and welfare of farm, zoo, and pet animals are discussed. Evidence mainly from studies of rodents and primates strongly indicates that prenatal stress can impair stress-coping ability, and

British Poultry Science, 1989

1. The effects on behaviour of selecting light-hybrid laying hens for high and low efficiency of ... more 1. The effects on behaviour of selecting light-hybrid laying hens for high and low efficiency of food utilisation were investigated. Efficiency of food utilisation was measured as the proportional deviation of observed food consumption from expected food consumption. 2. Videograms of the day-time behaviour of 48 to 53-week-old individually caged hens from the F3 generation were analysed by instantaneous sampling. 3. Low-efficiency hens spent more time food-pecking, walking, pacing, and showing escape and aggressive behaviour than did high-efficiency hens. High-efficiency hens spent more than twice as much time resting and sleeping, and were never observed pacing prior to laying. 4. These differences were larger during the 2 h before laying than at other times of day. 5. Low-efficiency hens had poorer plumage, especially on the neck and the breast, and the poorer the plumage the more agitation they showed. 6. Time spent food-pecking was negatively correlated with laying frequency. 7. Differences in the occurrence of specific behaviour patterns, particularly those symptomatic of pre-laying frustration, partly explained differences in efficiency of food utilisation. Selection for higher efficiency of food utilisation might eliminate hens which are most frustrated prior to laying in cages.

Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 1990

. Effects on behaviour and plumage of a key-stimuli floor and a perch in triple cages for laying ... more . Effects on behaviour and plumage of a key-stimuli floor and a perch in triple cages for laying hens. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., Three environmental factors were introduced in various combinations with the aim of reducing feather pecking and improving the plumage and welfare in low-density triple cages for light-hybrid laying hens (704 cm 2 per hen): (i) a floor with key stimuli for ground pecking, consisting of blue elliptic spots marked on a white matrix; (ii) a blue-dyed feed given during the sensitive period of food imprinting (0-6 days postnataily); (iii) a round wooden perch (d---33 mm). The effects on the time budget of behaviour, plumage and production were studied. The key-stimuli floor attracted more attention and pecking than the normal cage floor. Hens in perch cages showed less locomotor activity and pacing than other hens. The utilization of the perch during the daytime was 25.2%, but 40% of the preening and 49% of the sitting was carried out on the perch. The plumage at 50 weeks of age was better in hens which were given both blue feed after hatching and a key-stimuli floor in laying cages, and better in perch cages, than in controls. Hens in perch cages consumed 4% less feed than other hens. The results indicate that it may be possible to counteract the redirection of pecking from ground to feathers by ethological methods which stimulate ground pecking. 0168-1591/90/$03.50

Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica, Section A - Animal Science, 1994

On nine farms in a joint fur-farm area, reproduction was studied in 834 silver-fox vixens (Vulpes... more On nine farms in a joint fur-farm area, reproduction was studied in 834 silver-fox vixens (Vulpes vulpes L.), half of which were primiparous. Two different breeding boxes with a narrow entrance tunnel and two versions of a traditional box were used. The vixens had access to the box after insemination. No effect of box type was found on two farms

Prenatalt stress defineres som stress opplevd av et (drektig) mordyr som kan virke inn på avkomme... more Prenatalt stress defineres som stress opplevd av et (drektig) mordyr som kan virke inn på avkommets utvikling . Hos pattedyr er det vist at prenatalt stress kan føre til økt dødelighet og redusert vekst, svekket immunfunksjon, i tillegg til nedsatt utforsknings-og lekatferd, dårlig laering-og stressmestringsevne, samt suboptimal seksuell og maternal atferd . Videre kan også morfologiske parametre påvirkes av prenatalt stress, det er dokumentert økt forekomst av morfologiske anomalier hos prenatalt stressede avkom . Med tanke på fisk har man forholdsvis god kunnskap om hvordan stress influerer spesifikke reproduktive mekanismer, men det finnes relativt få studier som undersøker hvorvidt stress erfart av kjønnsmoden hunnfisk influerer avkommets karakterer. Innen kommersiell fiskeoppdrett eksponeres fisk i alle livsstadier for en rekke akutte og kroniske biotiske og abiotiske stressorer, i tillegg til at stamfisken regelmessig håndteres i forbindelse med kjønnsmodning og stryking. Dette kan tenkes å initiere en stressrespons tilsvarende som hos pattedyr med en forøket aktivitet i HPI-systemet med etterfølgende økt sekresjon av kortisol som kan påvirke avkommets utvikling. Stresset hunnfisk vil derfor kunne ha et forøket nivå av stresshormoner i blodet, som kan gjenspeiles i eggene hennes. Eksperiment viser at en korrelasjon mellom mordyrets nivå av hormoner i blod og rogn eksisterer. Formålet med dette forsøket var å undersøke hvorvidt prenatalt stress hos oppdrettslaks påvirker avkommets utvikling og stressmestringsevne, samt belyse hvorvidt avvikende morfologi kan fungere som en objektiv, pålitelig indikator med tanke på stress og velferd innen kommersiell akvakultur.

Prenatalt stress kan defineres som stress opplevd av en drektig hunn og som påvirker utviklingen ... more Prenatalt stress kan defineres som stress opplevd av en drektig hunn og som påvirker utviklingen av hennes avkom. Forskning på mange dyrearter har vist at slikt stress kan påvirke kjønnsfordelingen ved fødsel, og ha en uheldig effekt på vekst, motorisk utvikling, lek og utforskningsatferd, frykt overfor uvante stimuli, samt føre til feminisering av hannavkom og maskulinisering av hunnavkom med påfølgende svekket morsatferd . Hos avkom av smågnagere er det vist at slike effekter skyldes en overaktivering av den hormonelle stressaksen som utskiller kortisol fra binyrebarken (hypothalamushypofyse-binyrebarkaksen, HPA-aksen), sannsynligvis forårsaket av at fostret har levd med et forhøyet kortisolnivå siden kortisol kan gå over i fostret via blodbanene fra den stressede moren .

ABSTRACT ‘Green Care’ is a range of activities that promotes physical and mental health and well-... more ABSTRACT ‘Green Care’ is a range of activities that promotes physical and mental health and well-being through contact with nature. It utilises farms, gardens and other outdoor spaces as a therapeutic intervention for vulnerable adults and children. Green care includes care farming, therapeutic horticulture, animal assisted therapy and other nature-based approaches. These are now the subject of investigation by researchers from many different countries across the world.

FARMING FOR HEALTH, 2006

In Norway, Green Care comprises farm-based services to schools as well as health and social care.... more In Norway, Green Care comprises farm-based services to schools as well as health and social care. Farms can be used to host a wide range of activities, such as kindergartens, after-school programmes, school projects and theme assignments, education adapted to pupils with special needs, activities and tasks designed for psychiatric patients, mentally impaired and elderly with dementia. Green Care farms can also assist child-welfare authorities, e.g., by acting as day-care centres or foster homes. Three case presentations of service farms are given. As a large fraction of Norwegian farms are rather small, they are well suited for such services, which in most cases are paid by the local municipality. The county departments of agriculture provide advice and help in developing quality-assurance tools for the Green Care services and their physical environments. For persons with mental disorders, e.g., a psychiatric institution has the professional responsibility. Scientific research on Green Care is performed at two institutions. The Centre for Rural Research has conducted a nation-wide survey of Green Care farms. At The Agricultural University of Norway, research focuses on effects of working with farm animals on persons with mental disorders, and on health effects of plants indoors and in the working environment. This university also gives courses on Green Care at Bachelor level and as continuing education to farmers and health personnel. The chapter ends with a discussion on future challenges related to Green Care.

PLoS ONE, 2012

A surging interest in the evolution of consistent trait correlations has inspired research on pig... more A surging interest in the evolution of consistent trait correlations has inspired research on pigment patterns as a correlate of behavioural syndromes, or ''animal personalities''. Associations between pigmentation, physiology and health status are less investigated as potentially conserved trait clusters. In the current study, lice counts performed on farmed Atlantic salmon Salmo salar naturally infected with ectoparasitic sea lice Lepeophtheirus salmonis showed that individual fish with high incidence of black melanin-based skin spots harboured fewer female sea lice carrying egg sacs, compared to less pigmented fish. There was no significant association between pigmentation and lice at other developmental stages, suggesting that host factors associated with melanin-based pigmentation may modify ectoparasite development to a larger degree than settlement. In a subsequent laboratory experiment a strong negative correlation between skin spots and post-stress cortisol levels was revealed, with less pigmented individuals showing a more pronounced cortisol response to acute stress. The observation that lice prevalence was strongly increased on a fraction of sexually mature male salmon which occurred among the farmed fish further supports a role for steroid hormones as mediators of reduced parasite resistance. The data presented here propose steroid hormones as a proximate cause for the association between melanin-based pigmentation and parasites. Possible fundamental and applied implications are discussed. Citation: Kittilsen S, Johansen IB, Braastad BO, Øverli Ø (2012) Pigments, Parasites and Personalitiy: Towards a Unifying Role for Steroid Hormones? PLoS ONE 7(4): e34281.

Reproduction, Fertility and Development, 2000

Handling is a stressor for blue foxes. The influence of preterm handling (1 min daily) of vixens ... more Handling is a stressor for blue foxes. The influence of preterm handling (1 min daily) of vixens was investigated in 68, 10-day-old cubs, 34 male and 34 female. Body, gonadal and pituitary weight, ano-genital distance, gonadal testosterone and oestradiol content and in vitro production, and pituitary LH content were measured in all cubs. The gonads were frozen or incubated in vitro with, or without, added hCG (2.5 IU per sample). The gonadal incubates and homogenates were analysed for testosterone and oestradiol by radioimmunoassay and the pituitary homogenates for LH by immunofluorometric assay. The results indicate that neonatal fox gonads actively produce steroids and that there are significant sex differences in basal steroid production and response of the gonads to hCG, and in pituitary LH content. Maternal stress resulted in a significant reduction of morphometric and hormonal measures of the reproductive system in neonatal blue foxes, with more drastic effects in female cubs. Gonadal weights were lower in cubs of both sexes from stressed vixens (65.7+/-4.3 v 50.6+/-1.8 mg for the ovaries and 23.2+/-1.0 v. 17.7+/-1.0 mg for the testes, control v. stressed animals, P<0.01). The ano-genital distance in female offspring of stressed vixens was reduced (1.1+/-0.04 v. 0.9+/-0.03 cm, P<0.01). Basal ovarian oestradiol and testosterone production were decreased in cubs from prenatally stressed animals in comparison with controls (43.5+/-3.5 v. 32.6+/-3.7 pg ovary(-1) h(-1) and 0.40+/-0.16 v. 0.12+/-0.03 ng ovary(-1) h , P<0.05). Prenatal stress did not affect either pituitary weights or LH content in either sex. There were no significant differences in ano-genital distance, testicular content of testosterone, or in vitro testosterone production between control and treated male cubs. In conclusion, these findings suggest that prenatal handling stress impaired the neonatal reproductive development of the female offspring, but had no marked effects on males. Sex-specific effects of prenatal handling stress on the reproductive development in foxes may be linked with the gender differences in responses of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenocortical axis to stress conditions in this species.

PLoS ONE, 2014

Comparative studies are imperative for understanding the evolution of adaptive neurobiological pr... more Comparative studies are imperative for understanding the evolution of adaptive neurobiological processes such as neural plasticity, cognition, and emotion. Previously we have reported that prolonged omission of expected rewards (OER, or 'frustrative nonreward') causes increased aggression in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Here we report changes in brain monoaminergic activity and relative abundance of brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and dopamine receptor mRNA transcripts in the same paradigm. Groups of fish were initially conditioned to associate a flashing light with feeding. Subsequently, the expected food reward was delayed for 30 minutes during two out of three meals per day in the OER treatment, while the previously established routine was maintained in control groups. After 8 days there was no effect of OER on baseline brain stem serotonin (5-HT) or dopamine (DA) activity. Subsequent exposure to acute confinement stress led to increased plasma cortisol and elevated turnover of brain stem DA and 5-HT in all animals. The DA response was potentiated and DA receptor 1 (D1) mRNA abundance was reduced in the OER-exposed fish, indicating a sensitization of the DA system. In addition OER suppressed abundance of BDNF in the telencephalon of non-stressed fish. Regardless of OER treatment, a strong positive correlation between BDNF and D1 mRNA abundance was seen in non-stressed fish. This correlation was disrupted by acute stress, and replaced by a negative correlation between BDNF abundance and plasma cortisol concentration. These observations indicate a conserved link between DA, neurotrophin regulation, and corticosteroid-signaling pathways. The results also emphasize how fish models can be important tools in the study of neural plasticity and responsiveness to environmental unpredictability.

Occupational Therapy in Mental Health, 2011

Occupational Therapy in Mental Health, 2007

ABSTRACT There is a lack of scientific studies using farm animals in animal-assisted therapy (AAT... more ABSTRACT There is a lack of scientific studies using farm animals in animal-assisted therapy (AAT) for persons with mental disorders. This Norwegian study used video records to study the working abilities and behaviors of 35 severely ill psychiatric patients in interacting with farm animals during a three-month intervention. The patients showed higher intensity (difference score: 0.26 ± 0.05, p < 0.0001) and exactness (difference score: 0.31 ± 0.06, p < 0.0001) in their work at the end of the intervention, particularly patients with schizophrenia and personality disorders. The patients spent most relevant time in physical contact with the animals, feeding, cleaning, and milking cows. Among patients with affective disorders, increased intensity of work correlated significantly with increased generalized self-efficacy (rs = 0.82, p = 0.01) and decreased anxiety (rs = −0.7, p = 0.05). For the patients with schizophrenia and personality disorders no correlation was found between the behavioral parameters and the effect scores of psychiatric instruments. Occupational therapy with farm animals may be beneficial to some persons with mental disorders.

Journal of Fish Biology, 2011

Mature female Atlantic salmon Salmo salar were given intraperitoneal cortisol implants 1 week pri... more Mature female Atlantic salmon Salmo salar were given intraperitoneal cortisol implants 1 week prior to stripping to examine the influence of simulated maternal stress on offspring boldness and social dominance. Behavioural tests originally designed to investigate stress responsiveness and coping styles in salmonids (i.e. feeding in isolation, dominance tests and acute confinement) were carried out on the offspring 1·5 years after hatching. In the feeding test, there were no differences between the two treatment groups in total feeding score or number of pellets eaten, but offspring from the cortisol-implanted females made more unsuccessful feeding attempts than offspring from control females. In dominance tests, there was no difference between controls and cortisol-treated fish regarding propensity to become socially dominant. A higher proportion of individuals with bite marks, however, was observed in the cortisol group when compared to controls. Cortisoltreated offspring that gained dominant rank in the dominance tests performed more aggressive acts after stable dominance-subordinate relationships were established compared to control winners. During acute confinement stress, offspring from cortisol-implanted females showed a reduction in the proportion of time they were moving compared to the controls. These results indicate that the maternal endocrine state at spawning affects several aspects of progeny behaviour potentially related to subsequent success and survival in farmed S. salar.

Journal of Animal Breeding and Genetics, 2001

ABSTRACT The aim of this study was to describe the differences in cranial size and shape that occ... more ABSTRACT The aim of this study was to describe the differences in cranial size and shape that occur between different farmed blue fox populations within and between countries. The skulls were obtained at the pelting time from three Finnish, one Estonian, one Norwegian and seven Canadian farms. The material was subjected to a principal component (PC) analysis for each sex. The first PC-factor explained about 50% of variation. It was identified as the size factor; it discriminated Finnish blue foxes at one end and Nova Scotia foxes at the other end of the scale. The second PC-factor explained about 10% of variation in skull morphology but failed to discriminate the populations. The third factor, which was dominated by interorbital width, discriminated Nova Scotia foxes from the other populations. PC-factor 4 received its highest loading from the length of upper tooth row. This factor differentiated, although poorly, the Newfoundland fox populations, whether local or crosses between the local and the imported Finnish stock, from the others. The sexes were significantly different on most single parameters and the skulls of all farm populations were larger than those of wild Arctic foxes. However, there were also large differences in skull morphology between farms within one country. This shows that farmed blue foxes in different countries have not yet diverged into anatomically distinct populations.Variation der Schädelmorphologie zwischen farmgezüchteten BlaufuchspopulationenDer Zweck dieser Arbeit war es, die Unterschiede der Schädelgröße und -Form zwischen verschiedenen farmgezüchteten Blaufuchspopulationen innnerhalb einem und zwischen verschiedenen Ländern herauszufinden. Die Schädel wurden bei der Schlachtung aus 3 Finnischen, einem Estnischen, einem Norwegischen, und 7 Kanadischen Farmen, die insgesamt aus 6 verschiedenen Populationen stammten, gesammelt. Das Material, nach Geschlechtern getrennt, wurde mit Hilfe einer Hauptkomponenten Statistik analysiert. Es gab auch Geschlechtsunterschiede beinahe in allen einzelnen Werten. Ein Vergleich zu Literaturwerten zeigt, daß wilde Polarfüchse viel kleiner sind als Farmfüchse. Der erste Faktor konnte ca. 50% der Variation erklären, wurde Größenfaktor genannt, und plazierte die Finnischen Blaufüchse an das obere Ende und die aus Nova Scotia, Kanada, an das untere Ende der Skala. Der zweite Faktor erklärte ca. 10% der Variation der Schädelform, machte aber nur wenige Unterschiede zwischen die Populationen. Der dritte Faktor erhielt die größte Ladung von Ectorbitalbreite, und unterschied die Nova Scotia Population von den anderen. Faktor 4 bekam die größte Ladung von der Länge der oberen Zahnreihe. Dieser Faktor unterschied die Neu Fundland Populationen, mit und ohne Einkreuzung von Finnischen, von anderen Populationen. Aber es gab auch große Unterschiede in der Schädelmorphologie zwischen den Farmen in einem Land. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, daß farmgezüchtete Blaufüchse in verschiedenen Ländern noch nicht in einzelne Populationen getrennt sind.

International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 2014

In this project, we examined the effect of a 4-month intervention with horses on perceived social... more In this project, we examined the effect of a 4-month intervention with horses on perceived social support, self-esteem and general self-efficacy among Norwegian adolescents aged 12 -15 years. The intervention took place at farm-based stables and included work with the horses and riding. A waiting-list crossover design was used and the participants answered questionnaires at three time periods. Study I (N ¼ 49) examined the effect of the intervention compared with the control group. Study II (N ¼ 41) examined the relationship between the same psychological variables and change in mastering skills with horse. The intervention group reported a significant increase in perceived social support compared with the control group. There were no differences in self-esteem and general self-efficacy between the groups. The results from study II showed that a lower level of perceived social support prior to the intervention predicted an increase in mastering skills with the horse during the intervention.

Hormones and Behavior, 2009

Kittilsen, S.; Schjolden, J.; Beitnes-Johansen, I.; Shaw, J.C.; Pottinger, T.G.; Sorensen, C.; Br... more Kittilsen, S.; Schjolden, J.; Beitnes-Johansen, I.; Shaw, J.C.; Pottinger, T.G.; Sorensen, C.; Braastad, B.O.; Bakken, M.; Overli, O.. 2009 Melanin-based skin spots reflect stress responsiveness in salmonid fish. Hormones and Behavior, 56 (3). Within animal populations, genetic, epigenetic and environmental factors interact to shape individual neuroendocrine and behavioural profiles, conferring variable vulnerability to stress and disease. It remains debated how alternative behavioural syndromes and stress coping styles evolve and are maintained by natural selection. Here we show that individual variation in stress responsiveness is reflected in the visual appearance of two species of teleost fish; rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Salmon and trout skin vary from nearly immaculate to densely spotted, with black spots formed by eumelanin-producing chromatophores. In rainbow trout, selection for divergent hypothalamus-pituitary-interrenal responsiveness has led to a change in dermal pigmentation patterns, with low cortisol-responsive fish being consistently more spotted. In an aquaculture population of Atlantic salmon individuals with more spots showed a reduced physiological and behavioural response to stress. Taken together, these data demonstrate a heritable behavioural-physiological and morphological trait correlation that may be specific to alternative coping styles. This observation may illuminate the evolution of contrasting coping styles and behavioural syndromes, as occurrence of phenotypes in different environments and their response to selective pressures can be precisely and easily recorded.

General and Comparative Endocrinology, 2003

Previous studies revealed that handling is a stressor for farmed blue foxes. The present study wa... more Previous studies revealed that handling is a stressor for farmed blue foxes. The present study was designed to examine the effects of a 1-min daily handling stress applied to pregnant blue fox vixens on the function of the fetal pituitary-adrenal system. Plasma concentrations of adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH), cortisol, and progesterone, adrenal content of cortisol and progesterone, in vitro adrenal production of these steroids and response to ACTH, and adrenal weights were measured in control (C; n = 73) and stressed (S; n = 58) fetuses. The ACTH levels were lower in stressed fetuses than in the controls (C: males, 128.6 +/- 6.1 pg/ml; females, 165.9 +/- 6.1 pg/ml; S: males, 122.3 +/- 5.4 pg/ml; females, 145.0 +/- 8.1 pg/ml; P < 0.05). In contrast, increased plasma cortisol concentrations in both sexes were demonstrated in stressed compared with control fetuses (C: males, 9.2 +/- 0.4 ng/ml; females, 9.2 +/- 0.4 ng/ml; S: males, 11.8 +/- 0.7 ng/ml; females, 13.2 +/- 0.7 ng/ml; P < 0.00001). The same difference was observed in plasma progesterone concentrations (C: males, 1.54 +/- 0.07 ng/ml; females, 1.49 +/- 0.10 ng/ml; S: males, 1.86 +/- 0.11 ng/ml; females, 1.74 +/- 0.10 ng/ml; P < 0.01). Prenatal stress did not change the baseline adrenal production of cortisol but prevented the cortisol response to ACTH in female fetuses and decreased the progesterone production in both sexes. Additionally, prenatally stressed fetuses of both sexes had significantly lower adrenal weights than controls (C: males, 9.4 +/- 0.3 mg; females, 9.5 +/- 0.4 mg; S: males, 8.1 +/- 0.3 mg; females, 8.2 +/- 0.4 mg; P < 0.001). These results indicate that prenatal handling stress induces a dysregulation of the pituitary-adrenal axis in the fetus and suggest that increased plasma glucocorticoids in the stressed dam can cross the placenta and influence the fetal hypothalamicpituitary-adrenal axis.

Environmental Biology of Fishes, 2007

Developmental stability reflects the degree to which phenotypic expression is unaffected by rando... more Developmental stability reflects the degree to which phenotypic expression is unaffected by random accidents or developmental noise. Developmental stability may be measured by phenodeviance or fluctuating asymmetry (FA), and estimation of developmental stability has attracted substantial interest because it appears to represent a relatively simple method to identify sub lethal stress exposure and to assess animal welfare. As a part of a long-term study, the work presented here primarily aimed to investigate impacts on developmental instability in farmed salmon offspring ten months post hatch attributable to maternal cortisol administration prior to spawning and mild hyperthermia exerted during incubation. Main results show that maternal cortisol enhancement increased the level of FA in pectoral and pelvic fins, but did not affect the frequency of malformations in offspring. Mild hyperthermia during incubation increased weight and fork length and also increased pelvic fin FA. Malformed fish were heavier and longer than the normal ones, and pelvic fin asymmetry was positively related to condition factor. These results illustrate plausible lasting impacts on offspring development due to the maternal endocrinological state at spawning and indicate that developmental instability in farmed salmon juveniles may mirror aspects of the broodstock's housing conditions.

Occupational Therapy in Mental Health, 2011

Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 1998

This article is a review of research on effects of stress experienced by pregnant females on the ... more This article is a review of research on effects of stress experienced by pregnant females on the sex-ratio, behaviour and reproductive success of their offspring. Implications of such effects for the behaviour and welfare of farm, zoo, and pet animals are discussed. Evidence mainly from studies of rodents and primates strongly indicates that prenatal stress can impair stress-coping ability, and

British Poultry Science, 1989

1. The effects on behaviour of selecting light-hybrid laying hens for high and low efficiency of ... more 1. The effects on behaviour of selecting light-hybrid laying hens for high and low efficiency of food utilisation were investigated. Efficiency of food utilisation was measured as the proportional deviation of observed food consumption from expected food consumption. 2. Videograms of the day-time behaviour of 48 to 53-week-old individually caged hens from the F3 generation were analysed by instantaneous sampling. 3. Low-efficiency hens spent more time food-pecking, walking, pacing, and showing escape and aggressive behaviour than did high-efficiency hens. High-efficiency hens spent more than twice as much time resting and sleeping, and were never observed pacing prior to laying. 4. These differences were larger during the 2 h before laying than at other times of day. 5. Low-efficiency hens had poorer plumage, especially on the neck and the breast, and the poorer the plumage the more agitation they showed. 6. Time spent food-pecking was negatively correlated with laying frequency. 7. Differences in the occurrence of specific behaviour patterns, particularly those symptomatic of pre-laying frustration, partly explained differences in efficiency of food utilisation. Selection for higher efficiency of food utilisation might eliminate hens which are most frustrated prior to laying in cages.

Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 1990

. Effects on behaviour and plumage of a key-stimuli floor and a perch in triple cages for laying ... more . Effects on behaviour and plumage of a key-stimuli floor and a perch in triple cages for laying hens. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., Three environmental factors were introduced in various combinations with the aim of reducing feather pecking and improving the plumage and welfare in low-density triple cages for light-hybrid laying hens (704 cm 2 per hen): (i) a floor with key stimuli for ground pecking, consisting of blue elliptic spots marked on a white matrix; (ii) a blue-dyed feed given during the sensitive period of food imprinting (0-6 days postnataily); (iii) a round wooden perch (d---33 mm). The effects on the time budget of behaviour, plumage and production were studied. The key-stimuli floor attracted more attention and pecking than the normal cage floor. Hens in perch cages showed less locomotor activity and pacing than other hens. The utilization of the perch during the daytime was 25.2%, but 40% of the preening and 49% of the sitting was carried out on the perch. The plumage at 50 weeks of age was better in hens which were given both blue feed after hatching and a key-stimuli floor in laying cages, and better in perch cages, than in controls. Hens in perch cages consumed 4% less feed than other hens. The results indicate that it may be possible to counteract the redirection of pecking from ground to feathers by ethological methods which stimulate ground pecking. 0168-1591/90/$03.50

Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica, Section A - Animal Science, 1994

On nine farms in a joint fur-farm area, reproduction was studied in 834 silver-fox vixens (Vulpes... more On nine farms in a joint fur-farm area, reproduction was studied in 834 silver-fox vixens (Vulpes vulpes L.), half of which were primiparous. Two different breeding boxes with a narrow entrance tunnel and two versions of a traditional box were used. The vixens had access to the box after insemination. No effect of box type was found on two farms

Prenatalt stress defineres som stress opplevd av et (drektig) mordyr som kan virke inn på avkomme... more Prenatalt stress defineres som stress opplevd av et (drektig) mordyr som kan virke inn på avkommets utvikling . Hos pattedyr er det vist at prenatalt stress kan føre til økt dødelighet og redusert vekst, svekket immunfunksjon, i tillegg til nedsatt utforsknings-og lekatferd, dårlig laering-og stressmestringsevne, samt suboptimal seksuell og maternal atferd . Videre kan også morfologiske parametre påvirkes av prenatalt stress, det er dokumentert økt forekomst av morfologiske anomalier hos prenatalt stressede avkom . Med tanke på fisk har man forholdsvis god kunnskap om hvordan stress influerer spesifikke reproduktive mekanismer, men det finnes relativt få studier som undersøker hvorvidt stress erfart av kjønnsmoden hunnfisk influerer avkommets karakterer. Innen kommersiell fiskeoppdrett eksponeres fisk i alle livsstadier for en rekke akutte og kroniske biotiske og abiotiske stressorer, i tillegg til at stamfisken regelmessig håndteres i forbindelse med kjønnsmodning og stryking. Dette kan tenkes å initiere en stressrespons tilsvarende som hos pattedyr med en forøket aktivitet i HPI-systemet med etterfølgende økt sekresjon av kortisol som kan påvirke avkommets utvikling. Stresset hunnfisk vil derfor kunne ha et forøket nivå av stresshormoner i blodet, som kan gjenspeiles i eggene hennes. Eksperiment viser at en korrelasjon mellom mordyrets nivå av hormoner i blod og rogn eksisterer. Formålet med dette forsøket var å undersøke hvorvidt prenatalt stress hos oppdrettslaks påvirker avkommets utvikling og stressmestringsevne, samt belyse hvorvidt avvikende morfologi kan fungere som en objektiv, pålitelig indikator med tanke på stress og velferd innen kommersiell akvakultur.

Prenatalt stress kan defineres som stress opplevd av en drektig hunn og som påvirker utviklingen ... more Prenatalt stress kan defineres som stress opplevd av en drektig hunn og som påvirker utviklingen av hennes avkom. Forskning på mange dyrearter har vist at slikt stress kan påvirke kjønnsfordelingen ved fødsel, og ha en uheldig effekt på vekst, motorisk utvikling, lek og utforskningsatferd, frykt overfor uvante stimuli, samt føre til feminisering av hannavkom og maskulinisering av hunnavkom med påfølgende svekket morsatferd . Hos avkom av smågnagere er det vist at slike effekter skyldes en overaktivering av den hormonelle stressaksen som utskiller kortisol fra binyrebarken (hypothalamushypofyse-binyrebarkaksen, HPA-aksen), sannsynligvis forårsaket av at fostret har levd med et forhøyet kortisolnivå siden kortisol kan gå over i fostret via blodbanene fra den stressede moren .

ABSTRACT ‘Green Care’ is a range of activities that promotes physical and mental health and well-... more ABSTRACT ‘Green Care’ is a range of activities that promotes physical and mental health and well-being through contact with nature. It utilises farms, gardens and other outdoor spaces as a therapeutic intervention for vulnerable adults and children. Green care includes care farming, therapeutic horticulture, animal assisted therapy and other nature-based approaches. These are now the subject of investigation by researchers from many different countries across the world.

FARMING FOR HEALTH, 2006

In Norway, Green Care comprises farm-based services to schools as well as health and social care.... more In Norway, Green Care comprises farm-based services to schools as well as health and social care. Farms can be used to host a wide range of activities, such as kindergartens, after-school programmes, school projects and theme assignments, education adapted to pupils with special needs, activities and tasks designed for psychiatric patients, mentally impaired and elderly with dementia. Green Care farms can also assist child-welfare authorities, e.g., by acting as day-care centres or foster homes. Three case presentations of service farms are given. As a large fraction of Norwegian farms are rather small, they are well suited for such services, which in most cases are paid by the local municipality. The county departments of agriculture provide advice and help in developing quality-assurance tools for the Green Care services and their physical environments. For persons with mental disorders, e.g., a psychiatric institution has the professional responsibility. Scientific research on Green Care is performed at two institutions. The Centre for Rural Research has conducted a nation-wide survey of Green Care farms. At The Agricultural University of Norway, research focuses on effects of working with farm animals on persons with mental disorders, and on health effects of plants indoors and in the working environment. This university also gives courses on Green Care at Bachelor level and as continuing education to farmers and health personnel. The chapter ends with a discussion on future challenges related to Green Care.

PLoS ONE, 2012

A surging interest in the evolution of consistent trait correlations has inspired research on pig... more A surging interest in the evolution of consistent trait correlations has inspired research on pigment patterns as a correlate of behavioural syndromes, or ''animal personalities''. Associations between pigmentation, physiology and health status are less investigated as potentially conserved trait clusters. In the current study, lice counts performed on farmed Atlantic salmon Salmo salar naturally infected with ectoparasitic sea lice Lepeophtheirus salmonis showed that individual fish with high incidence of black melanin-based skin spots harboured fewer female sea lice carrying egg sacs, compared to less pigmented fish. There was no significant association between pigmentation and lice at other developmental stages, suggesting that host factors associated with melanin-based pigmentation may modify ectoparasite development to a larger degree than settlement. In a subsequent laboratory experiment a strong negative correlation between skin spots and post-stress cortisol levels was revealed, with less pigmented individuals showing a more pronounced cortisol response to acute stress. The observation that lice prevalence was strongly increased on a fraction of sexually mature male salmon which occurred among the farmed fish further supports a role for steroid hormones as mediators of reduced parasite resistance. The data presented here propose steroid hormones as a proximate cause for the association between melanin-based pigmentation and parasites. Possible fundamental and applied implications are discussed. Citation: Kittilsen S, Johansen IB, Braastad BO, Øverli Ø (2012) Pigments, Parasites and Personalitiy: Towards a Unifying Role for Steroid Hormones? PLoS ONE 7(4): e34281.

Reproduction, Fertility and Development, 2000

Handling is a stressor for blue foxes. The influence of preterm handling (1 min daily) of vixens ... more Handling is a stressor for blue foxes. The influence of preterm handling (1 min daily) of vixens was investigated in 68, 10-day-old cubs, 34 male and 34 female. Body, gonadal and pituitary weight, ano-genital distance, gonadal testosterone and oestradiol content and in vitro production, and pituitary LH content were measured in all cubs. The gonads were frozen or incubated in vitro with, or without, added hCG (2.5 IU per sample). The gonadal incubates and homogenates were analysed for testosterone and oestradiol by radioimmunoassay and the pituitary homogenates for LH by immunofluorometric assay. The results indicate that neonatal fox gonads actively produce steroids and that there are significant sex differences in basal steroid production and response of the gonads to hCG, and in pituitary LH content. Maternal stress resulted in a significant reduction of morphometric and hormonal measures of the reproductive system in neonatal blue foxes, with more drastic effects in female cubs. Gonadal weights were lower in cubs of both sexes from stressed vixens (65.7+/-4.3 v 50.6+/-1.8 mg for the ovaries and 23.2+/-1.0 v. 17.7+/-1.0 mg for the testes, control v. stressed animals, P<0.01). The ano-genital distance in female offspring of stressed vixens was reduced (1.1+/-0.04 v. 0.9+/-0.03 cm, P<0.01). Basal ovarian oestradiol and testosterone production were decreased in cubs from prenatally stressed animals in comparison with controls (43.5+/-3.5 v. 32.6+/-3.7 pg ovary(-1) h(-1) and 0.40+/-0.16 v. 0.12+/-0.03 ng ovary(-1) h , P<0.05). Prenatal stress did not affect either pituitary weights or LH content in either sex. There were no significant differences in ano-genital distance, testicular content of testosterone, or in vitro testosterone production between control and treated male cubs. In conclusion, these findings suggest that prenatal handling stress impaired the neonatal reproductive development of the female offspring, but had no marked effects on males. Sex-specific effects of prenatal handling stress on the reproductive development in foxes may be linked with the gender differences in responses of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenocortical axis to stress conditions in this species.

PLoS ONE, 2014

Comparative studies are imperative for understanding the evolution of adaptive neurobiological pr... more Comparative studies are imperative for understanding the evolution of adaptive neurobiological processes such as neural plasticity, cognition, and emotion. Previously we have reported that prolonged omission of expected rewards (OER, or 'frustrative nonreward') causes increased aggression in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Here we report changes in brain monoaminergic activity and relative abundance of brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and dopamine receptor mRNA transcripts in the same paradigm. Groups of fish were initially conditioned to associate a flashing light with feeding. Subsequently, the expected food reward was delayed for 30 minutes during two out of three meals per day in the OER treatment, while the previously established routine was maintained in control groups. After 8 days there was no effect of OER on baseline brain stem serotonin (5-HT) or dopamine (DA) activity. Subsequent exposure to acute confinement stress led to increased plasma cortisol and elevated turnover of brain stem DA and 5-HT in all animals. The DA response was potentiated and DA receptor 1 (D1) mRNA abundance was reduced in the OER-exposed fish, indicating a sensitization of the DA system. In addition OER suppressed abundance of BDNF in the telencephalon of non-stressed fish. Regardless of OER treatment, a strong positive correlation between BDNF and D1 mRNA abundance was seen in non-stressed fish. This correlation was disrupted by acute stress, and replaced by a negative correlation between BDNF abundance and plasma cortisol concentration. These observations indicate a conserved link between DA, neurotrophin regulation, and corticosteroid-signaling pathways. The results also emphasize how fish models can be important tools in the study of neural plasticity and responsiveness to environmental unpredictability.

Occupational Therapy in Mental Health, 2011

Occupational Therapy in Mental Health, 2007

ABSTRACT There is a lack of scientific studies using farm animals in animal-assisted therapy (AAT... more ABSTRACT There is a lack of scientific studies using farm animals in animal-assisted therapy (AAT) for persons with mental disorders. This Norwegian study used video records to study the working abilities and behaviors of 35 severely ill psychiatric patients in interacting with farm animals during a three-month intervention. The patients showed higher intensity (difference score: 0.26 ± 0.05, p < 0.0001) and exactness (difference score: 0.31 ± 0.06, p < 0.0001) in their work at the end of the intervention, particularly patients with schizophrenia and personality disorders. The patients spent most relevant time in physical contact with the animals, feeding, cleaning, and milking cows. Among patients with affective disorders, increased intensity of work correlated significantly with increased generalized self-efficacy (rs = 0.82, p = 0.01) and decreased anxiety (rs = −0.7, p = 0.05). For the patients with schizophrenia and personality disorders no correlation was found between the behavioral parameters and the effect scores of psychiatric instruments. Occupational therapy with farm animals may be beneficial to some persons with mental disorders.

Journal of Fish Biology, 2011

Mature female Atlantic salmon Salmo salar were given intraperitoneal cortisol implants 1 week pri... more Mature female Atlantic salmon Salmo salar were given intraperitoneal cortisol implants 1 week prior to stripping to examine the influence of simulated maternal stress on offspring boldness and social dominance. Behavioural tests originally designed to investigate stress responsiveness and coping styles in salmonids (i.e. feeding in isolation, dominance tests and acute confinement) were carried out on the offspring 1·5 years after hatching. In the feeding test, there were no differences between the two treatment groups in total feeding score or number of pellets eaten, but offspring from the cortisol-implanted females made more unsuccessful feeding attempts than offspring from control females. In dominance tests, there was no difference between controls and cortisol-treated fish regarding propensity to become socially dominant. A higher proportion of individuals with bite marks, however, was observed in the cortisol group when compared to controls. Cortisoltreated offspring that gained dominant rank in the dominance tests performed more aggressive acts after stable dominance-subordinate relationships were established compared to control winners. During acute confinement stress, offspring from cortisol-implanted females showed a reduction in the proportion of time they were moving compared to the controls. These results indicate that the maternal endocrine state at spawning affects several aspects of progeny behaviour potentially related to subsequent success and survival in farmed S. salar.

Journal of Animal Breeding and Genetics, 2001

ABSTRACT The aim of this study was to describe the differences in cranial size and shape that occ... more ABSTRACT The aim of this study was to describe the differences in cranial size and shape that occur between different farmed blue fox populations within and between countries. The skulls were obtained at the pelting time from three Finnish, one Estonian, one Norwegian and seven Canadian farms. The material was subjected to a principal component (PC) analysis for each sex. The first PC-factor explained about 50% of variation. It was identified as the size factor; it discriminated Finnish blue foxes at one end and Nova Scotia foxes at the other end of the scale. The second PC-factor explained about 10% of variation in skull morphology but failed to discriminate the populations. The third factor, which was dominated by interorbital width, discriminated Nova Scotia foxes from the other populations. PC-factor 4 received its highest loading from the length of upper tooth row. This factor differentiated, although poorly, the Newfoundland fox populations, whether local or crosses between the local and the imported Finnish stock, from the others. The sexes were significantly different on most single parameters and the skulls of all farm populations were larger than those of wild Arctic foxes. However, there were also large differences in skull morphology between farms within one country. This shows that farmed blue foxes in different countries have not yet diverged into anatomically distinct populations.Variation der Schädelmorphologie zwischen farmgezüchteten BlaufuchspopulationenDer Zweck dieser Arbeit war es, die Unterschiede der Schädelgröße und -Form zwischen verschiedenen farmgezüchteten Blaufuchspopulationen innnerhalb einem und zwischen verschiedenen Ländern herauszufinden. Die Schädel wurden bei der Schlachtung aus 3 Finnischen, einem Estnischen, einem Norwegischen, und 7 Kanadischen Farmen, die insgesamt aus 6 verschiedenen Populationen stammten, gesammelt. Das Material, nach Geschlechtern getrennt, wurde mit Hilfe einer Hauptkomponenten Statistik analysiert. Es gab auch Geschlechtsunterschiede beinahe in allen einzelnen Werten. Ein Vergleich zu Literaturwerten zeigt, daß wilde Polarfüchse viel kleiner sind als Farmfüchse. Der erste Faktor konnte ca. 50% der Variation erklären, wurde Größenfaktor genannt, und plazierte die Finnischen Blaufüchse an das obere Ende und die aus Nova Scotia, Kanada, an das untere Ende der Skala. Der zweite Faktor erklärte ca. 10% der Variation der Schädelform, machte aber nur wenige Unterschiede zwischen die Populationen. Der dritte Faktor erhielt die größte Ladung von Ectorbitalbreite, und unterschied die Nova Scotia Population von den anderen. Faktor 4 bekam die größte Ladung von der Länge der oberen Zahnreihe. Dieser Faktor unterschied die Neu Fundland Populationen, mit und ohne Einkreuzung von Finnischen, von anderen Populationen. Aber es gab auch große Unterschiede in der Schädelmorphologie zwischen den Farmen in einem Land. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, daß farmgezüchtete Blaufüchse in verschiedenen Ländern noch nicht in einzelne Populationen getrennt sind.

International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 2014

In this project, we examined the effect of a 4-month intervention with horses on perceived social... more In this project, we examined the effect of a 4-month intervention with horses on perceived social support, self-esteem and general self-efficacy among Norwegian adolescents aged 12 -15 years. The intervention took place at farm-based stables and included work with the horses and riding. A waiting-list crossover design was used and the participants answered questionnaires at three time periods. Study I (N ¼ 49) examined the effect of the intervention compared with the control group. Study II (N ¼ 41) examined the relationship between the same psychological variables and change in mastering skills with horse. The intervention group reported a significant increase in perceived social support compared with the control group. There were no differences in self-esteem and general self-efficacy between the groups. The results from study II showed that a lower level of perceived social support prior to the intervention predicted an increase in mastering skills with the horse during the intervention.

Hormones and Behavior, 2009

Kittilsen, S.; Schjolden, J.; Beitnes-Johansen, I.; Shaw, J.C.; Pottinger, T.G.; Sorensen, C.; Br... more Kittilsen, S.; Schjolden, J.; Beitnes-Johansen, I.; Shaw, J.C.; Pottinger, T.G.; Sorensen, C.; Braastad, B.O.; Bakken, M.; Overli, O.. 2009 Melanin-based skin spots reflect stress responsiveness in salmonid fish. Hormones and Behavior, 56 (3). Within animal populations, genetic, epigenetic and environmental factors interact to shape individual neuroendocrine and behavioural profiles, conferring variable vulnerability to stress and disease. It remains debated how alternative behavioural syndromes and stress coping styles evolve and are maintained by natural selection. Here we show that individual variation in stress responsiveness is reflected in the visual appearance of two species of teleost fish; rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Salmon and trout skin vary from nearly immaculate to densely spotted, with black spots formed by eumelanin-producing chromatophores. In rainbow trout, selection for divergent hypothalamus-pituitary-interrenal responsiveness has led to a change in dermal pigmentation patterns, with low cortisol-responsive fish being consistently more spotted. In an aquaculture population of Atlantic salmon individuals with more spots showed a reduced physiological and behavioural response to stress. Taken together, these data demonstrate a heritable behavioural-physiological and morphological trait correlation that may be specific to alternative coping styles. This observation may illuminate the evolution of contrasting coping styles and behavioural syndromes, as occurrence of phenotypes in different environments and their response to selective pressures can be precisely and easily recorded.

General and Comparative Endocrinology, 2003

Previous studies revealed that handling is a stressor for farmed blue foxes. The present study wa... more Previous studies revealed that handling is a stressor for farmed blue foxes. The present study was designed to examine the effects of a 1-min daily handling stress applied to pregnant blue fox vixens on the function of the fetal pituitary-adrenal system. Plasma concentrations of adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH), cortisol, and progesterone, adrenal content of cortisol and progesterone, in vitro adrenal production of these steroids and response to ACTH, and adrenal weights were measured in control (C; n = 73) and stressed (S; n = 58) fetuses. The ACTH levels were lower in stressed fetuses than in the controls (C: males, 128.6 +/- 6.1 pg/ml; females, 165.9 +/- 6.1 pg/ml; S: males, 122.3 +/- 5.4 pg/ml; females, 145.0 +/- 8.1 pg/ml; P < 0.05). In contrast, increased plasma cortisol concentrations in both sexes were demonstrated in stressed compared with control fetuses (C: males, 9.2 +/- 0.4 ng/ml; females, 9.2 +/- 0.4 ng/ml; S: males, 11.8 +/- 0.7 ng/ml; females, 13.2 +/- 0.7 ng/ml; P < 0.00001). The same difference was observed in plasma progesterone concentrations (C: males, 1.54 +/- 0.07 ng/ml; females, 1.49 +/- 0.10 ng/ml; S: males, 1.86 +/- 0.11 ng/ml; females, 1.74 +/- 0.10 ng/ml; P < 0.01). Prenatal stress did not change the baseline adrenal production of cortisol but prevented the cortisol response to ACTH in female fetuses and decreased the progesterone production in both sexes. Additionally, prenatally stressed fetuses of both sexes had significantly lower adrenal weights than controls (C: males, 9.4 +/- 0.3 mg; females, 9.5 +/- 0.4 mg; S: males, 8.1 +/- 0.3 mg; females, 8.2 +/- 0.4 mg; P < 0.001). These results indicate that prenatal handling stress induces a dysregulation of the pituitary-adrenal axis in the fetus and suggest that increased plasma glucocorticoids in the stressed dam can cross the placenta and influence the fetal hypothalamicpituitary-adrenal axis.

Environmental Biology of Fishes, 2007

Developmental stability reflects the degree to which phenotypic expression is unaffected by rando... more Developmental stability reflects the degree to which phenotypic expression is unaffected by random accidents or developmental noise. Developmental stability may be measured by phenodeviance or fluctuating asymmetry (FA), and estimation of developmental stability has attracted substantial interest because it appears to represent a relatively simple method to identify sub lethal stress exposure and to assess animal welfare. As a part of a long-term study, the work presented here primarily aimed to investigate impacts on developmental instability in farmed salmon offspring ten months post hatch attributable to maternal cortisol administration prior to spawning and mild hyperthermia exerted during incubation. Main results show that maternal cortisol enhancement increased the level of FA in pectoral and pelvic fins, but did not affect the frequency of malformations in offspring. Mild hyperthermia during incubation increased weight and fork length and also increased pelvic fin FA. Malformed fish were heavier and longer than the normal ones, and pelvic fin asymmetry was positively related to condition factor. These results illustrate plausible lasting impacts on offspring development due to the maternal endocrinological state at spawning and indicate that developmental instability in farmed salmon juveniles may mirror aspects of the broodstock's housing conditions.