Robert De Keyser | University of Maryland, College Park (original) (raw)
Papers by Robert De Keyser
The TESOL Encyclopedia of English Language Teaching, Mar 7, 2017
Anecdotal experience tells us that children are "better at language learning" than adults, but ex... more Anecdotal experience tells us that children are "better at language learning" than adults, but exactly how and why they are different from adults in this respect has proved harder to pin down than one may expect. Roughly speaking, children learning a second language under the age of 6 are almost certain to end up like native speakers in all domains of language, while those who learn that same language after age 12 are likely to have non-native features, and those who learn it after age 16 are almost certain not to be able to pass for native speakers (e.g., Abrahamsson & Hyltenstam, 2009). Averaged over many individuals, one typically sees, again roughly between the ages of 6 and 16, a gradual decline of ultimate attainment (the furthest a learner ever gets in the language, after many years of daily use) as a function of age of onset (the age at which acquisition of the language started). The latter is sometimes also called age of arrival, because for many people, children as well as adults, their first significant exposure to a new language is when they arrive as immigrants in a new country. The reasons for this phenomenon of decline with age have been hotly debated. Some researchers argue that it is not due to age itself, but to amount of experience with the first language or to social and educational variables that tend to correlate strongly with age, such as amount of education in the second language. Many, however, adhere to a maturational interpretation, that is, that language learning becomes harder as the learner matures (ages), regardless of the social context. This interpretation has been known in the literature as the critical period hypothesis since Lenneberg (1967) introduced this essentially biological concept into the field of linguistics. While a large amount of research on age effects in the learning of second language grammar and pronunciation has accumulated in the last few decades, very little of it has directly addressed the role of age in classroom language learning (as opposed to learning by immigrants). This relative scarcity of research directly relevant to
Chapter 10. Age effects in naturalistic and instructed second language acquisition
John Benjamins Publishing Company eBooks, Aug 15, 2022
Language Learning, Feb 13, 2013
Second Language Acquisition
Chapter 10. Age effects in naturalistic and instructed second language acquisition
Bilingual Processing and Acquisition
Frontiers in Communication, 2021
People who grow up speaking a language without lexical tones typically find it difficult to maste... more People who grow up speaking a language without lexical tones typically find it difficult to master tonal languages after childhood. Accumulating research suggests that much of the challenge for these second language (L2) speakers has to do not with identification of the tones themselves, but with the bindings between tones and lexical units. The question that remains open is how much of these lexical binding problems are problems ofencoding(incomplete knowledge of the tone-to-word relations) vs.retrieval(failure to access those relations in online processing). While recent work using lexical decision tasks suggests that both may play a role, one issue is that failure on a lexical decision task may reflect a lack of learner confidence about what isnota word, rather than non-native representation or processing of known words. Here we provide complementary evidence using a picture-phonology matching paradigm in Mandarin in which participants decide whether or not a spoken target matche...
Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 2021
This article discusses the conceptualization, measurement, and validity of a recently emerged con... more This article discusses the conceptualization, measurement, and validity of a recently emerged construct in the field of second language acquisition (SLA)—implicit language aptitude (alternatively “implicit aptitude”). Implicit aptitude is a set of cognitive abilities that enable learners to make unconscious computations of the distributional and transitional probabilities of linguistic input. Implicit aptitude is key to an accurate understanding of the cognitive foundation of language learning and contributes significantly to the advancement of SLA theory and pedagogy. The article starts by clarifying the concept and components of implicit aptitude, elaborating its role in SLA theories, identifying its attributes, and discussing its measurement. It then synthesizes the empirical evidence on its divergent, convergent, and predictive validity, which refers to whether it is distinct or separable from explicit aptitude, whether measures of implicit aptitude are correlated, and whether i...
Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 2018
It is commonly believed that second language (L2) acquisition of lexical tones presents a major c... more It is commonly believed that second language (L2) acquisition of lexical tones presents a major challenge for learners from nontonal language backgrounds. This belief is somewhat at odds with research that consistently shows beginning learners making quick gains through focused tone training, as well as research showing advanced learners achieving near-native performance in tone identification tasks. However, other long-term difficulties related to L2 tone perception may persist, given the additional demands of word recognition and the effects of context. In the current study, we used behavioral and event-related potential (ERP) experiments to test whether perception of Mandarin tones is difficult for advanced L2 learners in isolated syllables, disyllabic words in isolation, and disyllabic words in sentences. Stimuli were more naturalistic and challenging than in previous research. While L2 learners excelled at tone identification in isolated syllables, they performed with very low ...
International Journal of English Studies, 2010
After presenting some of the main arguments against certain narrow concepts of second language pr... more After presenting some of the main arguments against certain narrow concepts of second language practice, this article argues that a broader concept of practice, still focused on form or even forms, but with due attention to form-meaning links and with appropriate sequencing of activities to ensure declarative knowledge first, followed by its proceduralization and (at least partial) automatization, is as relevant as ever. A brief overview is given of the range of activities that fall within this concept, and recommendations are made for adaptation to students’ individual and group differences.
Testing SLA theory in the research lab
The Effectiveness of Processing Instruction in L2 Grammar Acquisition: A Narrative Review
Applied Linguistics, 2014
The past two decades have seen ample debate about processing instruction (PI) and its various com... more The past two decades have seen ample debate about processing instruction (PI) and its various components. In this article, we first describe what PI consists of and then address three questions: about the role of explicit information (EI) in PI, the difference between PI and teaching that incorporates production-based (PB) practice, and various factors that may moderate the impact of these treatments. Our review shows that while many studies find little difference between PI with and without EI and between PI and PB, the results vary depending on whether the comprehension practice (structured input; SI) is task-essential or not and whether the PB is communicative or not. Furthermore, PI tends to favor comprehension abilities and PB production abilities. This review also shows that almost all PI research so far has been very short-term and limited to a narrow range of structures and populations, typically American college students learning a foreign language. Therefore the implications that some have drawn from the PI literature, namely, that neither EI nor production practice help beyond SI, are still far from generalizable.
Practice in a Second Language
Practice gets a raw deal in the field of applied linguistics. Most laypeople simply assume that p... more Practice gets a raw deal in the field of applied linguistics. Most laypeople simply assume that practice is a necessary condition for language learning without giving the concept much further thought, but many applied linguists eschew the term practice. For some, the word conjures up images of mind-numbing drills in the sweatshops of foreign language learning, while for others it means fun and games to appease students on Friday afternoons. Practice is by no means a dirty word in other domains of human endeavor, however. Parents dutifully take their kids to soccer practice, and professional athletes dutifully show up for team practice, sometimes even with recent injuries. Parents make their kids practice their piano skills at home, and the world's most famous performers of classical music often practice for many hours a day, even if it makes their fingers hurt. If even idolized, spoiled, and highly paid celebrities are willing to put up with practice, why not language learners, teachers, or researchers? The concept of second language practice remains remarkably unexamined from a theoretical point of view. Misgivings and misunderstandings about practice abound and are often rooted in even deeper misunderstandings about what it is that language learners are supposed to learn. In this introductory chapter, I will try to provide some conceptual and terminological clarification in preparation for the rest of the book. In the concluding chapter, I will then formulate tentative recommendations for "the praxis of practice," as they follow from these conceptual distinctions and from the other chapters. It should be clear from the outset, of course, that the word practice in the title is not meant as the opposite of theory, as in "foreign language teaching policy vs. actual practice in secondary schools," "practicing professionals," or "the praxis of second language teaching." The contributors to this book all understand practice in a much more focused way, as specific activities in the second language, engaged in systematically, deliberately, with the goal of developing knowledge of and skills in the second language. But within this broad definition there are still many different ways one can understand the concept of practice. Before we zero in on the meanings of practice in applied linguistics, however, 1
Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 1997
This study is a fine-grained analysis of extensive empirical data on the automatization of explic... more This study is a fine-grained analysis of extensive empirical data on the automatization of explicitly learned rules of morphosyntax in a second language. Sixty-one subjects were taught four morphosyntactic rules and 32 vocabulary items in an artificial language. After they had reached criterion on a set of metalinguistic tests of grammar and vocabulary, they engaged in systematic, computer-controlled comprehension and production practice for 8 weeks. Comprehension practice consisted of choosing between pictures displayed on the computer screen to match a sentence; production practice consisted of typing the correct sentence corresponding to a picture. All subjects were taught the same rules and then practiced them, and all subjects had the same amount of comprehension and production practice, but which rules were practiced in comprehension and which in production varied between groups. Results show that the learning of morphosyntactic rules is highly skill-specific and that these sk...
Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 2014
For some, research in learning and teaching of a second language (L2) runs the risk of disintegra... more For some, research in learning and teaching of a second language (L2) runs the risk of disintegrating into irreconcilable approaches to L2 learning and use. On the one side, we find researchers investigating linguistic-cognitive issues, often using quantitative research methods including inferential statistics; on the other side, we find researchers working on the basis of sociocultural or sociocognitive views, often using qualitative research methods including case studies and ethnography. Is there a gap in research in L2 learning and teaching? The present article developed from an invited colloquium at the 2013 meeting of the American Association for Applied Linguistics in Dallas, Texas. It comprises nine single-authored pieces, with an introduction and a conclusion by the coeditors. Our overarching goals are (a) to raise awareness of the limitations of addressing only the cognitive or only the social in research on L2 learning and teaching and (b) to explore ways of bridging and/...
Language Learning, 2013
The effect of age of acquisition on ultimate attainment in second language learning has been a co... more The effect of age of acquisition on ultimate attainment in second language learning has been a controversial topic for years. After providing a very brief overview of the ideas that are at the core of the controversy, I discuss the two main reasons why these issues are so controversial: conceptual misunderstandings and methodological difficulties. The main part of the article then makes suggestions for improvement in subject selection, data collection, and instrumentation, in the hope that both sides of the debate will be able to agree on them. More sophisticated research in this area is of the utmost importance given how crucial understanding age effects is for educational policy and curriculum design. Where foreign language learning rather than second language learning is concerned, directly relevant research, carried out with classroom foreign language learners, is even more sorely needed.
Applied Psycholinguistics, 2010
ABSTRACTFew researchers would doubt that ultimate attainment in second language grammar is negati... more ABSTRACTFew researchers would doubt that ultimate attainment in second language grammar is negatively correlated with age of acquisition, but considerable controversy remains about the nature of this relationship: the exact shape of the age-attainment function and its interpretation. This article presents two parallel studies with native speakers of Russian: one on the acquisition of English as a second language in North America (n= 76), and one on the acquisition of Hebrew as a second language in Israel (n= 64). Despite the very different nature of the languages being learned, the two studies show very similar results. When age at testing is partialed out, the data reveal a steep decline in the learning of grammar before age 18 in both groups, followed by an essentially horizontal slope until age 40. This is interpreted as evidence in favor of the critical period. Both groups show a significant correlation between ultimate attainment and verbal aptitude for the adult learners, but ...
Aptitudes, abilities, contexts, and practice
Practice in a Second Language
The Modern Language Journal, Aug 2, 2019
This introduction to the special issue provides an overview of the role of practice in a second l... more This introduction to the special issue provides an overview of the role of practice in a second language (L2) from both pedagogical and theoretical perspectives. The following 5 areas of research are identified for studying L2 practice from cognitive psychology perspectives: (a) the type of practice (retrieval practice, corrective feedback, modality), (b) distribution of practice, (c) schedule of practice (blocking and interleaving effects), (d) individual difference factors (aptitude-treatment interaction), and (e) effects of practice on learning trajectories and outcomes. This special issue sets a research agenda toward better understanding the learning processes and resulting knowledge through practice. That research can inform teachers about how they can optimize L2 teaching and learning for a variety of learners across different classroom contexts.
Conflicting Evidence of Explicit and Implicit Knowledge from Objective and Subjective Measures
Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 2019
This study is the first to compare objective and subjective measures of explicit and implicit kno... more This study is the first to compare objective and subjective measures of explicit and implicit knowledge under learning from incidental exposure. An experiment was conducted, during which L1 English speakers were trained on a semiartificial language, Japlish. A measure of explicit knowledge and a recently proposed measure of implicit knowledge (i.e., an untimed auditory grammaticality judgment and a word-monitoring task) were applied to gauge the two types of knowledge at two testing sessions, and their results were compared with those of subjective measures of awareness. Results revealed clear discrepancies between the two measurement approaches in terms of their sensitivity. In particular, while the subjective measures varied in identifying explicit and implicit knowledge of various Japlish constructions, the objective measures indicated that most of the knowledge was explicit, and development of implicit knowledge (measured by the word-monitoring task) was minimal, only manifested...
The Role of Salience in the Acquisition of Hebrew as a Second Language
Salience in Second Language Acquisition, 2017
The TESOL Encyclopedia of English Language Teaching, Mar 7, 2017
Anecdotal experience tells us that children are "better at language learning" than adults, but ex... more Anecdotal experience tells us that children are "better at language learning" than adults, but exactly how and why they are different from adults in this respect has proved harder to pin down than one may expect. Roughly speaking, children learning a second language under the age of 6 are almost certain to end up like native speakers in all domains of language, while those who learn that same language after age 12 are likely to have non-native features, and those who learn it after age 16 are almost certain not to be able to pass for native speakers (e.g., Abrahamsson & Hyltenstam, 2009). Averaged over many individuals, one typically sees, again roughly between the ages of 6 and 16, a gradual decline of ultimate attainment (the furthest a learner ever gets in the language, after many years of daily use) as a function of age of onset (the age at which acquisition of the language started). The latter is sometimes also called age of arrival, because for many people, children as well as adults, their first significant exposure to a new language is when they arrive as immigrants in a new country. The reasons for this phenomenon of decline with age have been hotly debated. Some researchers argue that it is not due to age itself, but to amount of experience with the first language or to social and educational variables that tend to correlate strongly with age, such as amount of education in the second language. Many, however, adhere to a maturational interpretation, that is, that language learning becomes harder as the learner matures (ages), regardless of the social context. This interpretation has been known in the literature as the critical period hypothesis since Lenneberg (1967) introduced this essentially biological concept into the field of linguistics. While a large amount of research on age effects in the learning of second language grammar and pronunciation has accumulated in the last few decades, very little of it has directly addressed the role of age in classroom language learning (as opposed to learning by immigrants). This relative scarcity of research directly relevant to
Chapter 10. Age effects in naturalistic and instructed second language acquisition
John Benjamins Publishing Company eBooks, Aug 15, 2022
Language Learning, Feb 13, 2013
Second Language Acquisition
Chapter 10. Age effects in naturalistic and instructed second language acquisition
Bilingual Processing and Acquisition
Frontiers in Communication, 2021
People who grow up speaking a language without lexical tones typically find it difficult to maste... more People who grow up speaking a language without lexical tones typically find it difficult to master tonal languages after childhood. Accumulating research suggests that much of the challenge for these second language (L2) speakers has to do not with identification of the tones themselves, but with the bindings between tones and lexical units. The question that remains open is how much of these lexical binding problems are problems ofencoding(incomplete knowledge of the tone-to-word relations) vs.retrieval(failure to access those relations in online processing). While recent work using lexical decision tasks suggests that both may play a role, one issue is that failure on a lexical decision task may reflect a lack of learner confidence about what isnota word, rather than non-native representation or processing of known words. Here we provide complementary evidence using a picture-phonology matching paradigm in Mandarin in which participants decide whether or not a spoken target matche...
Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 2021
This article discusses the conceptualization, measurement, and validity of a recently emerged con... more This article discusses the conceptualization, measurement, and validity of a recently emerged construct in the field of second language acquisition (SLA)—implicit language aptitude (alternatively “implicit aptitude”). Implicit aptitude is a set of cognitive abilities that enable learners to make unconscious computations of the distributional and transitional probabilities of linguistic input. Implicit aptitude is key to an accurate understanding of the cognitive foundation of language learning and contributes significantly to the advancement of SLA theory and pedagogy. The article starts by clarifying the concept and components of implicit aptitude, elaborating its role in SLA theories, identifying its attributes, and discussing its measurement. It then synthesizes the empirical evidence on its divergent, convergent, and predictive validity, which refers to whether it is distinct or separable from explicit aptitude, whether measures of implicit aptitude are correlated, and whether i...
Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 2018
It is commonly believed that second language (L2) acquisition of lexical tones presents a major c... more It is commonly believed that second language (L2) acquisition of lexical tones presents a major challenge for learners from nontonal language backgrounds. This belief is somewhat at odds with research that consistently shows beginning learners making quick gains through focused tone training, as well as research showing advanced learners achieving near-native performance in tone identification tasks. However, other long-term difficulties related to L2 tone perception may persist, given the additional demands of word recognition and the effects of context. In the current study, we used behavioral and event-related potential (ERP) experiments to test whether perception of Mandarin tones is difficult for advanced L2 learners in isolated syllables, disyllabic words in isolation, and disyllabic words in sentences. Stimuli were more naturalistic and challenging than in previous research. While L2 learners excelled at tone identification in isolated syllables, they performed with very low ...
International Journal of English Studies, 2010
After presenting some of the main arguments against certain narrow concepts of second language pr... more After presenting some of the main arguments against certain narrow concepts of second language practice, this article argues that a broader concept of practice, still focused on form or even forms, but with due attention to form-meaning links and with appropriate sequencing of activities to ensure declarative knowledge first, followed by its proceduralization and (at least partial) automatization, is as relevant as ever. A brief overview is given of the range of activities that fall within this concept, and recommendations are made for adaptation to students’ individual and group differences.
Testing SLA theory in the research lab
The Effectiveness of Processing Instruction in L2 Grammar Acquisition: A Narrative Review
Applied Linguistics, 2014
The past two decades have seen ample debate about processing instruction (PI) and its various com... more The past two decades have seen ample debate about processing instruction (PI) and its various components. In this article, we first describe what PI consists of and then address three questions: about the role of explicit information (EI) in PI, the difference between PI and teaching that incorporates production-based (PB) practice, and various factors that may moderate the impact of these treatments. Our review shows that while many studies find little difference between PI with and without EI and between PI and PB, the results vary depending on whether the comprehension practice (structured input; SI) is task-essential or not and whether the PB is communicative or not. Furthermore, PI tends to favor comprehension abilities and PB production abilities. This review also shows that almost all PI research so far has been very short-term and limited to a narrow range of structures and populations, typically American college students learning a foreign language. Therefore the implications that some have drawn from the PI literature, namely, that neither EI nor production practice help beyond SI, are still far from generalizable.
Practice in a Second Language
Practice gets a raw deal in the field of applied linguistics. Most laypeople simply assume that p... more Practice gets a raw deal in the field of applied linguistics. Most laypeople simply assume that practice is a necessary condition for language learning without giving the concept much further thought, but many applied linguists eschew the term practice. For some, the word conjures up images of mind-numbing drills in the sweatshops of foreign language learning, while for others it means fun and games to appease students on Friday afternoons. Practice is by no means a dirty word in other domains of human endeavor, however. Parents dutifully take their kids to soccer practice, and professional athletes dutifully show up for team practice, sometimes even with recent injuries. Parents make their kids practice their piano skills at home, and the world's most famous performers of classical music often practice for many hours a day, even if it makes their fingers hurt. If even idolized, spoiled, and highly paid celebrities are willing to put up with practice, why not language learners, teachers, or researchers? The concept of second language practice remains remarkably unexamined from a theoretical point of view. Misgivings and misunderstandings about practice abound and are often rooted in even deeper misunderstandings about what it is that language learners are supposed to learn. In this introductory chapter, I will try to provide some conceptual and terminological clarification in preparation for the rest of the book. In the concluding chapter, I will then formulate tentative recommendations for "the praxis of practice," as they follow from these conceptual distinctions and from the other chapters. It should be clear from the outset, of course, that the word practice in the title is not meant as the opposite of theory, as in "foreign language teaching policy vs. actual practice in secondary schools," "practicing professionals," or "the praxis of second language teaching." The contributors to this book all understand practice in a much more focused way, as specific activities in the second language, engaged in systematically, deliberately, with the goal of developing knowledge of and skills in the second language. But within this broad definition there are still many different ways one can understand the concept of practice. Before we zero in on the meanings of practice in applied linguistics, however, 1
Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 1997
This study is a fine-grained analysis of extensive empirical data on the automatization of explic... more This study is a fine-grained analysis of extensive empirical data on the automatization of explicitly learned rules of morphosyntax in a second language. Sixty-one subjects were taught four morphosyntactic rules and 32 vocabulary items in an artificial language. After they had reached criterion on a set of metalinguistic tests of grammar and vocabulary, they engaged in systematic, computer-controlled comprehension and production practice for 8 weeks. Comprehension practice consisted of choosing between pictures displayed on the computer screen to match a sentence; production practice consisted of typing the correct sentence corresponding to a picture. All subjects were taught the same rules and then practiced them, and all subjects had the same amount of comprehension and production practice, but which rules were practiced in comprehension and which in production varied between groups. Results show that the learning of morphosyntactic rules is highly skill-specific and that these sk...
Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 2014
For some, research in learning and teaching of a second language (L2) runs the risk of disintegra... more For some, research in learning and teaching of a second language (L2) runs the risk of disintegrating into irreconcilable approaches to L2 learning and use. On the one side, we find researchers investigating linguistic-cognitive issues, often using quantitative research methods including inferential statistics; on the other side, we find researchers working on the basis of sociocultural or sociocognitive views, often using qualitative research methods including case studies and ethnography. Is there a gap in research in L2 learning and teaching? The present article developed from an invited colloquium at the 2013 meeting of the American Association for Applied Linguistics in Dallas, Texas. It comprises nine single-authored pieces, with an introduction and a conclusion by the coeditors. Our overarching goals are (a) to raise awareness of the limitations of addressing only the cognitive or only the social in research on L2 learning and teaching and (b) to explore ways of bridging and/...
Language Learning, 2013
The effect of age of acquisition on ultimate attainment in second language learning has been a co... more The effect of age of acquisition on ultimate attainment in second language learning has been a controversial topic for years. After providing a very brief overview of the ideas that are at the core of the controversy, I discuss the two main reasons why these issues are so controversial: conceptual misunderstandings and methodological difficulties. The main part of the article then makes suggestions for improvement in subject selection, data collection, and instrumentation, in the hope that both sides of the debate will be able to agree on them. More sophisticated research in this area is of the utmost importance given how crucial understanding age effects is for educational policy and curriculum design. Where foreign language learning rather than second language learning is concerned, directly relevant research, carried out with classroom foreign language learners, is even more sorely needed.
Applied Psycholinguistics, 2010
ABSTRACTFew researchers would doubt that ultimate attainment in second language grammar is negati... more ABSTRACTFew researchers would doubt that ultimate attainment in second language grammar is negatively correlated with age of acquisition, but considerable controversy remains about the nature of this relationship: the exact shape of the age-attainment function and its interpretation. This article presents two parallel studies with native speakers of Russian: one on the acquisition of English as a second language in North America (n= 76), and one on the acquisition of Hebrew as a second language in Israel (n= 64). Despite the very different nature of the languages being learned, the two studies show very similar results. When age at testing is partialed out, the data reveal a steep decline in the learning of grammar before age 18 in both groups, followed by an essentially horizontal slope until age 40. This is interpreted as evidence in favor of the critical period. Both groups show a significant correlation between ultimate attainment and verbal aptitude for the adult learners, but ...
Aptitudes, abilities, contexts, and practice
Practice in a Second Language
The Modern Language Journal, Aug 2, 2019
This introduction to the special issue provides an overview of the role of practice in a second l... more This introduction to the special issue provides an overview of the role of practice in a second language (L2) from both pedagogical and theoretical perspectives. The following 5 areas of research are identified for studying L2 practice from cognitive psychology perspectives: (a) the type of practice (retrieval practice, corrective feedback, modality), (b) distribution of practice, (c) schedule of practice (blocking and interleaving effects), (d) individual difference factors (aptitude-treatment interaction), and (e) effects of practice on learning trajectories and outcomes. This special issue sets a research agenda toward better understanding the learning processes and resulting knowledge through practice. That research can inform teachers about how they can optimize L2 teaching and learning for a variety of learners across different classroom contexts.
Conflicting Evidence of Explicit and Implicit Knowledge from Objective and Subjective Measures
Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 2019
This study is the first to compare objective and subjective measures of explicit and implicit kno... more This study is the first to compare objective and subjective measures of explicit and implicit knowledge under learning from incidental exposure. An experiment was conducted, during which L1 English speakers were trained on a semiartificial language, Japlish. A measure of explicit knowledge and a recently proposed measure of implicit knowledge (i.e., an untimed auditory grammaticality judgment and a word-monitoring task) were applied to gauge the two types of knowledge at two testing sessions, and their results were compared with those of subjective measures of awareness. Results revealed clear discrepancies between the two measurement approaches in terms of their sensitivity. In particular, while the subjective measures varied in identifying explicit and implicit knowledge of various Japlish constructions, the objective measures indicated that most of the knowledge was explicit, and development of implicit knowledge (measured by the word-monitoring task) was minimal, only manifested...
The Role of Salience in the Acquisition of Hebrew as a Second Language
Salience in Second Language Acquisition, 2017