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was also a self-proclaimed Kantian. Could that possibly be true, and, if it were, what ramificati... more was also a self-proclaimed Kantian. Could that possibly be true, and, if it were, what ramifications would such a revelation have on the wider historical context of the pre-Nazi era in Germany? At face value such claims appear as mere lunacy, as Kant was an unabashed humanist in his political views. Foundational to the German racial and national conception on the other hand, was not just the preeminence of the German people, but equally the monstrous and barbaric nature of all those non-Europeans who stood in the way of the ultimate Germanic objective of bringing the world into its own spiritual utopia. The question of how the German (or, at least, some Germans) came to see himself in this light has been a topic of immense fascination for nearly a century, and existing scholarship on the topic has ebbed and flowed almost as much as the ideal of the German did within its many 19 th century incarnations. Yet, still, existing historical scholarship on the connection between racial theorists and established German philosophers remains sparse. To this end, this project seeks to document for itself the development of Nazi ideology out of its "Foundations" within the philosophy of the 19 th century. Beginning with the German religious revolution in the writings of Immanuel Kant, the German tradition developed for itself a unique sense of pseudo-mysticism which galvanized a section of the German people with a revolutionary spirit few nations could hope to match. With the failure of popular politics in Germany to bring about this revolution, the German public turned towards ever more dangerous methods of achieving their supposed racial destiny, eventually submerging themselves so deeply within racial hatred and nationalist sentiment that almost all of the early idealism that had motivated the movement had been stripped away. Yet a proper analysis of the period ranging from the late 18 th century to the end of the 19 th century requires an appreciation for and understanding of all of the previous work which now allows this project to achieve its ultimate goal. To that end, this brief introduction will provide a short summary of the existing secondary scholarship on the development of Nazi ideology, primarily by focusing on a corpus of important and influential sources which serve to characterize different periods within the developing tradition of Nazi historical scholarship. Beginning even in the 1940's, one can see a methodological split within existing historical communities focused on studying the origins of Nazism. On one side were those who saw Nazi history as a singularly political phenomenon, and thus took to explaining its rise in a comparable manner. William Montgomery McGovern's From Luther to Hitler: The History of Fascist-Nazi Political Philosophy was an excellent example of this tradition. In McGovern's 1941 book, the history of Nazism supposedly demonstrated a clear timeline of development from the political philosophy of the Reformation, up into Kantianism and later Idealism, all the way through to the development of Social Darwinism and even the Italian Fascist movement. Kant's Idealist tradition aimed, in McGovern's view, "at undermining the whole framework of the liberal creed." 1 McGovern did not stop there either, as he believed that Kantianism was founded on three basic principles: the supremacy of the spiritual over the material, the supremacy of pure reason over sensation or experience, and the supremacy of the universal moral law over the wishes, caprices, and desires of
Leciona Carlos Roberto Gonçalves (p. 1) que: "O direito das obrigações tem por objeto determinada... more Leciona Carlos Roberto Gonçalves (p. 1) que: "O direito das obrigações tem por objeto determinadas relações jurídicas que alguns denominam direitos de crédito e outros cha-mam de direitos pessoais ou obrigacionais. O vocábulo obrigação comporta vários sentidos, mas em todos eles, o conceito de obrigação é, na essência, o mesmo: a submissão a uma regra de conduta, cuja autoridade é reconhecida ou forço-samente se impõe. Contudo, o direito das obrigações emprega o referido vocábulo em sentido mais restrito, compreendendo apenas os vínculos de conteúdo patrimonial, que se estabelecem de pessoa a pessoa, co-locando-as, uma em face da outra, como credora e devedora, de tal modo que uma esteja na situação de poder exigir a prestação, e a outra, na contingência de cumpri-la." As relações obrigacionais trazem, necessariamente em sua essência, mesmo que de forma implícita, a promessa de cumprimento das respecti-vas obrigações por parte das pessoas nelas envolvidas. Resta claro, portan-to, que a nalidade nal do direito das obrigações é fornecer meios para que o credor possa exigir o cumprimento da prestação ao devedor, pois de acordo como o secular princípio do pacta sunt servanda, os contratos devem ser cumpridos, em razão da manifestação da vontade, que obriga o contratante. A doutrina de Orozimbo Nonato (p. 9) leciona que "a obrigação nasce para se extinguir com o seu cumprimento. O objetivo da obrigação não é
was also a self-proclaimed Kantian. Could that possibly be true, and, if it were, what ramificati... more was also a self-proclaimed Kantian. Could that possibly be true, and, if it were, what ramifications would such a revelation have on the wider historical context of the pre-Nazi era in Germany? At face value such claims appear as mere lunacy, as Kant was an unabashed humanist in his political views. Foundational to the German racial and national conception on the other hand, was not just the preeminence of the German people, but equally the monstrous and barbaric nature of all those non-Europeans who stood in the way of the ultimate Germanic objective of bringing the world into its own spiritual utopia. The question of how the German (or, at least, some Germans) came to see himself in this light has been a topic of immense fascination for nearly a century, and existing scholarship on the topic has ebbed and flowed almost as much as the ideal of the German did within its many 19 th century incarnations. Yet, still, existing historical scholarship on the connection between racial theorists and established German philosophers remains sparse. To this end, this project seeks to document for itself the development of Nazi ideology out of its "Foundations" within the philosophy of the 19 th century. Beginning with the German religious revolution in the writings of Immanuel Kant, the German tradition developed for itself a unique sense of pseudo-mysticism which galvanized a section of the German people with a revolutionary spirit few nations could hope to match. With the failure of popular politics in Germany to bring about this revolution, the German public turned towards ever more dangerous methods of achieving their supposed racial destiny, eventually submerging themselves so deeply within racial hatred and nationalist sentiment that almost all of the early idealism that had motivated the movement had been stripped away. Yet a proper analysis of the period ranging from the late 18 th century to the end of the 19 th century requires an appreciation for and understanding of all of the previous work which now allows this project to achieve its ultimate goal. To that end, this brief introduction will provide a short summary of the existing secondary scholarship on the development of Nazi ideology, primarily by focusing on a corpus of important and influential sources which serve to characterize different periods within the developing tradition of Nazi historical scholarship. Beginning even in the 1940's, one can see a methodological split within existing historical communities focused on studying the origins of Nazism. On one side were those who saw Nazi history as a singularly political phenomenon, and thus took to explaining its rise in a comparable manner. William Montgomery McGovern's From Luther to Hitler: The History of Fascist-Nazi Political Philosophy was an excellent example of this tradition. In McGovern's 1941 book, the history of Nazism supposedly demonstrated a clear timeline of development from the political philosophy of the Reformation, up into Kantianism and later Idealism, all the way through to the development of Social Darwinism and even the Italian Fascist movement. Kant's Idealist tradition aimed, in McGovern's view, "at undermining the whole framework of the liberal creed." 1 McGovern did not stop there either, as he believed that Kantianism was founded on three basic principles: the supremacy of the spiritual over the material, the supremacy of pure reason over sensation or experience, and the supremacy of the universal moral law over the wishes, caprices, and desires of
Leciona Carlos Roberto Gonçalves (p. 1) que: "O direito das obrigações tem por objeto determinada... more Leciona Carlos Roberto Gonçalves (p. 1) que: "O direito das obrigações tem por objeto determinadas relações jurídicas que alguns denominam direitos de crédito e outros cha-mam de direitos pessoais ou obrigacionais. O vocábulo obrigação comporta vários sentidos, mas em todos eles, o conceito de obrigação é, na essência, o mesmo: a submissão a uma regra de conduta, cuja autoridade é reconhecida ou forço-samente se impõe. Contudo, o direito das obrigações emprega o referido vocábulo em sentido mais restrito, compreendendo apenas os vínculos de conteúdo patrimonial, que se estabelecem de pessoa a pessoa, co-locando-as, uma em face da outra, como credora e devedora, de tal modo que uma esteja na situação de poder exigir a prestação, e a outra, na contingência de cumpri-la." As relações obrigacionais trazem, necessariamente em sua essência, mesmo que de forma implícita, a promessa de cumprimento das respecti-vas obrigações por parte das pessoas nelas envolvidas. Resta claro, portan-to, que a nalidade nal do direito das obrigações é fornecer meios para que o credor possa exigir o cumprimento da prestação ao devedor, pois de acordo como o secular princípio do pacta sunt servanda, os contratos devem ser cumpridos, em razão da manifestação da vontade, que obriga o contratante. A doutrina de Orozimbo Nonato (p. 9) leciona que "a obrigação nasce para se extinguir com o seu cumprimento. O objetivo da obrigação não é