Louisa Raisbeck | University of North Carolina at Greensboro (original) (raw)

Papers by Louisa Raisbeck

Journal of Motor Behavior, Mar 1, 2012

Journal of Motor Learning and Development, Dec 1, 2017

The primary purpose of this study was to describe the focus of attention NCAA Division 1 golfers ... more The primary purpose of this study was to describe the focus of attention NCAA Division 1 golfers use during practice and competition. A secondary purpose was to determine who was most influential in the focus of attention strategies adopted by NCAA Division 1 golfers. We collected observational data by attending practice sessions, conducting semistructured interviews, and administering guided focus groups. Results revealed two major themes pertaining to the focus of attention adopted by our sample of NCAA Division 1 golfers: situational focus and reactivity focus. Situational focus refers to the focus used within a specific context, and reactivity focus refers to the focus golfers adopt because of a psychological state. Further, our results revealed the importance of esteemed individuals’ instruction on the development of attentional focus strategies. Parents, coaches, and popular media were highly influential in our sample of NCAA Division 1 golfers’ selection of attentional focus strategies.

International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching, Sep 4, 2018

The superiority of using an external focus of attention for learning and performance benefits has... more The superiority of using an external focus of attention for learning and performance benefits has been documented in distance running. However, there is limited research examining the actual attentional focus strategies adopted by distance runners. The purpose of this study was to describe the focus of attention used by distance runners in practice and competition and to better understand where these athletes seek information about improving performance. Sixteen distance runners (32.1 AE 10.0 yr) who run at least 20 mile/week (37.7 AE 10.8 mile/week) completed a questionnaire examining information related to attentional focus during training and competition and where athletes go for educational resources. Results indicate that distance runners do not solely adhere to external focus of attention, rather utilize multiple forms of attentional focus strategies that are not examined in laboratory research. Further, it seems that most training advice is received from coaches or training partners and not scientific literature.

Journal of Motor Behavior, May 22, 2019

An external focus of attention is considered superior to an internal focus for learning and perfo... more An external focus of attention is considered superior to an internal focus for learning and performance. However, findings specific to changing the task difficulty are inconsistent. The present study used a reciprocal aiming task to determine the effects of attentional focus on motor performance using speed-accuracy paradigm. We constrained timing to examine how internal and external focus of attention influenced accuracy when task difficulty changes. The results indicated greater accuracy on the right target and greater consistency on both targets for the external focus condition, regardless of task difficulty. Our results uniquely demonstrated how instruction modified a speed-accuracy task.

Perceptual and Motor Skills, Dec 1, 2015

-The theoretical explanations used to explain changes in performance during motor imagery and phy... more -The theoretical explanations used to explain changes in performance during motor imagery and physical practice conditions are inconsistent when memory retrieval is and is not required. This study measured performance time and workload during acquisition, a retention test requiring memory retrieval, and a retention test not requiring memory retrieval using a key-pressing task. The participants were assigned to physical practice with or without instructions to learn or motor imagery with or without instructions to learn. A diagram of the keys was presented during the practice trials and the first retention test, but was not presented during the second test. The results revealed no effect for the learning instructions or performance changes during the practice phases. However, during both retention tests participants in the physical practice conditions performed significantly faster than those in the motor imagery conditions. Also, higher levels of workload were reported for the motor imagery conditions when the retention test required memory retrieval compared to the other phases. A discussion of the implications of workload on performance is presented with respect to varying practice conditions.

Perceptual and Motor Skills, Oct 1, 2014

Journal of Motor Learning and Development, Dec 1, 2016

An external focus of attention, as opposed to an internal focus of attention, has been shown to i... more An external focus of attention, as opposed to an internal focus of attention, has been shown to increase performance and enhance learning. However, little research has examined whether these findings have been integrated into collegiate coaching and adopted by student-athlete performers. The purpose of this study was to examine the verbal instructions and instructional feedback provided by NCAA division 1 collegiate coaches during practice and how it influenced student-athletes’ focus of attention during competition. Thirty-one student-athletes completed a questionnaire that inquired about coaches’ verbal instructions and instructional feedback during practice and student-athletes’ focus of attention during competition. Fifty percent of participants reported that their coaches instructed them to focus their attention internally and only four participants reported that their coaches instructed them to focus externally. Our results also showed that coaches provided an equal amount of internal and external instructional feedback. During competition, however, the majority of participants reported statements that fell under the category of “winning and strategy.” These results suggest that the beneficial effects of an external focus of attention have not been integrated into NCAA division 1 collegiate coaching and the focus of attention adopted by student-athletes may be more complex than what is studied in laboratory research.

International journal of sport and exercise psychology, Jan 5, 2016

During skill execution, performers have been shown to attend to different aspects of movement, th... more During skill execution, performers have been shown to attend to different aspects of movement, the external effects of one's action, or to other environmental information. A variety of psychological mechanisms have been proposed to account for the differential outcomes when adopting each attentional strategy. However, there is limited information about the extent to which different attentional foci change the workload demands of task performance. To examine this, the current study administered the NASA-Task Load Index following a simulated shooting dual-task. Participants performed the primary shooting task alone (control), and also with a secondary task that directed attention toward an aspect of skill execution (skill-focused) and an unrelated environmental stimulus (extraneous focus). Primary and secondary task performances were significantly greater in the extraneous focus compared to the skill-focused dual-task. Also, workload was significantly lower during the extraneous focus compared to the skill-focused dualtask condition. Further analyses revealed that workload significantly mediated the effects of skill level on performance during the skill-focused and extraneous focus dual-tasks and various subscales of workload (i.e., temporal demand) contributed unique amounts of variance to this relationship. A discussion of the relationship between attention, workload and its subcomponents, skill level, and performance is presented.

Journal of Motor Learning and Development, Jun 1, 2017

Performance benefits exist for an external focus of attention compared with an internal focus of ... more Performance benefits exist for an external focus of attention compared with an internal focus of attention for performance and learning (Wulf, 2013). It is unknown, however, if varying the number of verbal cues affects learning and performance. Focus of attention and the number of verbal cues were manipulated during a simulated handgun-shooting task. For the internal focus conditions, participants were told to focus on their hand, arm, and wrist, whereas the external focus instructions were to focus on the gun, gun barrel, and gun stock. To manipulate the number of verbal cues, participants received instruction to focus on a single verbal cue or multiple verbal cues. Shooting performance was assessed at baseline, acquisition, and at two separate retention phases (immediate, delayed) that included transfer tests. Participants completed the NASA—Task Load Index to assess workload following all trials. Participants who received one verbal cue performed significantly better during immediate retention than those who received three verbal cues. Participants who used external focus of attention instructions had higher performance and reported less workload at delayed retention compared to those who used internal focus instructions. This research provides further support for the benefits of an external focus and highlights the importance of minimizing the number of verbal cues.

PubMed, 2020

The benefits of using an external focus relative to an internal focus for endurance activities ar... more The benefits of using an external focus relative to an internal focus for endurance activities are well documented. However, literature has revealed that internally focused instructions are predominantly adopted in the field, and existing data are limited to highlyskilled level populations. Moreover, athletes' focus of attention during fatigue invoking activities is unknown. The purpose of the current study was to examine what type of feedback and instructions experienced recreational individuals receive and their self-adopted focus of attention when fatigued. Distance runners answered a questionnaire related to instruction and feedback from coaches and thoughts that the athletes experienced while fatigued. The results showed that more than half of the instructions runners received from coaches were internally focused and consisted of both knowledge of performance and knowledge of results. Self-reported focus of runners when fatigued revealed that only 15% of task-related thoughts were externally focused. Despite a large body of motor behavior literature, attentional strategies shown to increase performance and learning were not predominantly present (from coaches or self-adopted) for this population of experienced recreational distance runners.

Journal of Motor Learning and Development, Dec 1, 2018

Obstacle crossing, such as stepping over a curb, becomes more challenging with natural aging and ... more Obstacle crossing, such as stepping over a curb, becomes more challenging with natural aging and could lead to obstacle-related trips and falls. To reduce fall-risk, obstacle training programs using physical obstacles have been developed, but come with space and human resource constraints. These barriers could be removed by using a virtual obstacle crossing training program, but only if the learned gait characteristics transfer to a real environment. We examined whether virtual environment obstacle crossing behavior is transferred to crossing real environment obstacles. Forty participants (n = 20 younger adults and n = 20 older adults) completed two sessions of virtual environment obstacle crossing, which was preceded and followed by one session of real environment obstacle crossing. Participants learned to cross the virtual obstacle more safely and that change in behavior was transferred to the real environment via increased foot clearance and alterations in foot placement before and after the real environment obstacle. Further, while both age groups showed transfer to the real environment task, they differed on the limb in which their transfer effects applied. This suggests it is plausible to use virtual reality training to enhance gait characteristics in the context of obstacle avoidance, potentially leading to a novel way to reduce fall-risk.

Perceptual and Motor Skills

External focus (attention to the movement effect) has been found effective in motor performance a... more External focus (attention to the movement effect) has been found effective in motor performance and learning. However, while some investigators have suggested that the effect of attentional focus varies with task difficulty, others reported external focus benefits regardless of difficulty. We hypothesized that attentional focus effects would vary with practice, due to changes in the individual’s processing efficiency. We had three 20-person participant groups (external focus instructions, internal focus instructions, control) practice three difficulty levels of a Fitts reciprocal tapping task over two days. Participants in the external/internal focus groups were instructed to “mentally focus on moving the pen/your hand as fast and accurately as possible,” while control participants were instructed to “mentally focus only on doing your best to achieve the task goal.” We then analyzed the effect of attentional focus by task difficulty at the initial performance (the beginning of the p...

Motor Control, 2018

Falls in older adults are a public health challenge due to their influence on well-being and heal... more Falls in older adults are a public health challenge due to their influence on well-being and healthcare costs. One way to address this challenge is to discover new methods to enhance postural control in older adults so they are better prepared to maintain an upright stance. Older and younger adults (N = 32) performed a static balance task on a force plate with no instructions, internal focus instructions, or external focus instructions. Center of pressure displacement time series were analyzed using sample entropy and standard deviation. Only the external focus condition significantly increased postural control entropy, which was observed across both age groups. This study showed that an external focus of attention can be used to increase postural control entropy within a single session of testing.

Journal of motor behavior, Jan 24, 2018

This study examined the training effect of attentional focus (external focus, internal focus, or ... more This study examined the training effect of attentional focus (external focus, internal focus, or no focus instructions) on a dynamic balance task. Participants completed baseline balance testing, seven consecutive days of dynamic balance board training, and retention testing 24 hours after the last session. The novel finding of this study was the presence of a training effect on balance control when adopting an external focus relative to an internal focus or no focus instructions. Further, we report the unique observation that more patterned behavior was adopted regardless of the focus instructions. These findings provide insight into how instructions can be altered to enhance human balance control and complement the constrained-action hypothesis.

International journal of exercise science, 2018

The purpose of our study was to examine if the beneficial effects of an external focus are effect... more The purpose of our study was to examine if the beneficial effects of an external focus are effective for balance control when sleep-deprived. Sleep-deprived participants (27 hours awake) completed three blocks of five separate 30 second trials on a dynamic balance board. All participants were given internal, external, and control instruction. For the internal focus trials, participants focused on their feet; whereas, for the external focus trials, participants focused on the balance board. Participants' time in balance was significantly greater during the external focus compared to the internal focus and control. These findings suggest that external focus instructions are effective when participants are sleep-deprived.

Physiology & behavior, Jan 9, 2017

This study examined the effect of 24h of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance and assessed ... more This study examined the effect of 24h of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance and assessed the effect of acute exercise on cognitive performance following sleep deprivation. Young, active, healthy adults (n=24, 14 males) were randomized to control (age=24.7±3.7years, BMI=27.2±7.0) or exercise (age=25.3±3.3years, BMI=25.6±5.1) groups. Cognitive testing included a 5-min psychomotor vigilance task (PVT), three memory tasks with increasing cognitive load, and performance of the PVT a second time. On morning one, cognitive testing followed a typical night's sleep. Following 24-h of sustained wakefulness, cognitive testing was conducted again prior to and after the acute intervention. Participants in the exercise condition performed low-intensity cycling (∼40%HRR) for 15-min and those in the control condition sat quietly on the bike for 15-min. t-Tests revealed sleep deprivation negatively affected performance on the PVT, but did not affect memory performance. Following the acut...

Journal of Motor Learning and Development, 2017

Journal of Motor Learning and Development, 2016

Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 2016

To investigate potential differences in clinical and laboratory measures of static and dynamic ba... more To investigate potential differences in clinical and laboratory measures of static and dynamic balance in 30 women who were 0-5 years post-treatment for breast cancer (breast cancer survivors) and 21 women without a history of cancer (controls). METHODS: Subjects completed 4 balance tests. Static balance was assessed using the Single Leg Stance Test (SLS) with eyes open and closed and the NeuroCom 6condition Sensory Organization Test (SOT). Dynamic balance was assessed using the Timed Up and Go Test (TUG) and the Fullerton Advanced Balance Scale (FABS). Scores for each balance assessment were compared between study groups using independent samples t-tests. Scores for the eyes open and eyes closed conditions of the SLS were compared within each group using paired samples t-tests. RESULTS: Breast cancer survivors exhibited significantly poorer balance compared to the controls on the eyes open condition of the SLS (23.7 ± 16.0 seconds vs. 37.1 ± 11.3 seconds, p = 0.001), the TUG (8.7 ± 1.3 seconds vs. 7.6 ± 1.0 seconds, p = 0.003), and the FABS (35 ± 3 points vs. 39 ± 1 points, p < 0.0005). Both groups experienced significantly poorer balance on the eyes closed condition of the SLS compared to the eyes open condition (p < 0.0005). Breast cancer survivors also displayed significantly worse overall equilibrium scores on the NeuroCom SOT compared to the controls (74 ± 6 points vs. 78 ± 5 points, p = 0.02). Within the 6 conditions of the SOT, breast cancer survivors performed significantly worse on Conditions 2 and 3 (i.e., eyes closed with firm surface and eyes open with sway-referenced visual surround; p = 0.001 and 0.005, respectively) and tended to perform worse on Conditions 4 and 6 compared to controls (i.e. eyes open with sway-referenced surface and eyes open with sway-referenced surface and visual surround; p = 0.06 and 0.06, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: Compared to women who have never experienced cancer treatment, breast cancer survivors appear to have some significant reductions in both static and dynamic balance as measured using clinical methods (i.e. the SLS, TUG, and FABS) as well as laboratory methods (i.e., the NeuroCom SOT). Understanding the impact of cancer treatments on balance is important, as this information may give insight into developing future specific interventions for this population.