Luka Gruškovnjak | University of Ljubljana (original) (raw)

Medieval Period by Luka Gruškovnjak

“... alle drew Purchstal”: arheološke raziskave gradov vitezov Jeterbenških v pogorju Jeterbenka nad Medvodami / “... alle drew Purchstal”: archaeological investigations of the castles of the Hertenberg knights in the range of Jeterbenk above Medvode, 2023

The High Medieval Kašča Castle, located atop the eponymous hill in Central Slovenia was one of th... more The High Medieval Kašča Castle, located atop the eponymous hill in Central Slovenia was one of the three castle estates belonging to the Hertenberg ministerials. While no standing architecture has been preserved at the site, a recently constructed forest track cut across the hill and castle’s interior, and exposed, in its section, the castle’s buried remains. In this study, we examined an extensive medieval dark earth sequence, located in the bailey, next to the southern wall of the northwest castle tower.

In the first application of micromorphological technique to medieval deposits in Slovenia, we identified a construction material that was new to Slovenian castle studies – i.e. lime-clay mortar. This is also the first reconstruction of dark earth sequence formation processes in the country. Micromorphological analysis of the organo-mineral deposits consisting of interchanging black, (charcoal-rich) and lighter (mineral-based) layers has revealed that the area next to the tower served as a midden where fire installation rake-out was regularly dumped. The large quantities of charcoal (mainly beech charcoal) were produced by various fire installations, including baking ovens. The rake-out was intermixed with smaller quantities of ash and construction materials which consisted of aggregates of lime and lime-clay mortars, fragments of open hearths, tile-stoves, and various constructed floors. It appears that fire installations and floors in different sections of castle, including the kitchen and the owners’ living quarters were regularly swept, cleaned, and occasionally renovated. The mineral-based materials, consisting of rubble and earth-based construction materials were also occasionally dumped onto the midden (perhaps to level its surface), creating interchanging black and lighter layers in its sequence. At the end of the midden’s life-cycle, the nature of the space began to change. People walking across the area caused trampling and compaction of the uppermost layers. At the very end, the midden was levelled by a thick, matrix-supported gravel deposit.

The analysed dark earth sequence was therefore created by the intertwined processes of cleaning, dumping, levelling and an array of pedogenic processes, including bioturbation.

Documenta Archaeologica 1, 2023

The wider area around the confluence of the Rivers Sora and Sava holds a marked concentration of ... more The wider area around the confluence of the Rivers Sora and Sava holds a marked concentration of medieval castles and strongholds, which reflects the significance of the area as a junction of communications between Ljubljana, Kamnik and Škofja Loka, but also mirrors the changing military and political circumstances on the borders of feudal estates between the 11th and the 15th century. Within this concentration, the castles of the Hertenberg knights hold a special place. The complex of castles in the area of Jeterbenk above Žlebe comprises the Nebojse tower and the castles of Stari Jeterbenk and Novi Jeterbenk, known from historical sources. This publication focuses on the results of the archaeological investigations into the remains of the castle complex that the Department of Archaeology at the Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana, conducted in 2006–2007 and 2018–2021. The investigations have resulted in important advances in our knowledge of the construction features, development and chronology of all three castles of the Jeterbenk complex, as well as the associated small finds that reveal the living standards and life of the Hertenberg family, but also the events that led to the destruction or abandonment of the castles.

Iron Age by Luka Gruškovnjak

The article presents the remains of the prehistoric cemetery on the left bank of the Ljubljanica ... more The article presents the remains of the prehistoric
cemetery on the left bank of the Ljubljanica River that were excavated
in 2013 in the area of Novi trg in Ljubljana. The remains
consisted of three previously robbed and disturbed graves. The
grave goods were poorly preserved, but nevertheless revealed
forms and decorations rarely observed in the Ljubljana cemetery.
Two of the graves were covered with respective mounds and provide
new insights into the burial practices in the cemetery, but
also into the role of animals, especially dogs, in funerary contexts.

Arheologija v letu 2021, dediščina za javnost, Zbornik povzetkov, Strokovno srečanje Slovenskega arheološkega društva 13. in 14. junija 2022 v Atriju ZRC SAZU v Ljubljani, 2022

Arheologija v letu 2020, dediščina za javnost, Zbornik povzetkov, Strokovno srečanje Slovenskega arheološkega društva na spletni videokonferenci 10. decembra 2021, 2021

Publikacija je brezplačna. Zbornik povzetkov ARHEOLOGIJA v letu dediščina za javnost 2020 Strokov... more Publikacija je brezplačna. Zbornik povzetkov ARHEOLOGIJA v letu dediščina za javnost 2020 Strokovno srečanje Slovenskega arheološkega društva na spletni videokonferenci 10. decembra 2021

Arheologija v letu 2021, dediščina za javnost, Zbornik povzetkov, Strokovno srečanje Slovenskega arheološkega društva 13. in 14. junija 2022 v Atriju ZRC SAZU v Ljubljani, 2022

Iron Age Danube Route Magazine, 2022

Short news about the ongoing analyses of Pungrt settlement deposits and micro-artefact assemblages.

Arheologija v letu 2022: dediščina za javnost, 2023

Arheološki vestnik, 2023

With its numerous cemeteries and fortified settlement at Gobavica together with the settlement ar... more With its numerous cemeteries and fortified settlement at Gobavica together with the settlement area at its base, Mengeš
represents one of the most important sites of the Gorenjska-Ljubljana Hallstatt group. In the article, we present the results
of an archaeological excavation conducted on the Zavrti site in 2003. Here, several skeletal graves and one cremation
grave as well as the burial of a mare have been discovered. All can be dated to the younger Hallstatt period, which has
also been confirmed by the result of radiocarbon dating analysis. Such findings are clearly remarkable, as this is the
first example to date of a complete horse skeleton burial within the funeral ritual from the Gorenjska-Ljubljana group.
Furthermore, the discovered skeletal graves are also exceptional for the Gorenjska region. Analysis of all skeletal graves
from the Early Iron Age period in Mengeš revealed that the practice of inhumation burial had appeared in the 9th/8th
century BC and continued in the younger Hallstatt period. New discoveries confirm that in the Early Iron Age Mengeš
was within the interest spheres of several communities, especially those from the Sv. Lucija and Dolenjska Hallstatt groups.

Arheološki vestnik

Mengeš je s številnimi grobišči in utrjeno naselbino na Gobavici ter poselitvenim arealom nep... more Mengeš je s številnimi grobišči in utrjeno naselbino na Gobavici ter poselitvenim arealom neposredno ob vznožju gradišča eno pomembnejših najdišč gorenjsko-ljubljanske halštatske skupine. V članku so predstavljeni rezultati arheoloških izkopavanj iz leta 2003 na grobišču Zavrti, kjer so bili odkriti skeletni in žgani grob ter pokop kobile iz mlajšehalštatskega obdobja. Arheološka datacija je bila potrjena z radiokarbonsko analizo. Gre za izjemno odkritje, saj pokop celega konja v okviru pogrebnega obreda in kulta do zdaj iz gorenjsko-ljubljanske skupine še ni bil znan, prav tako je na Gorenjskem v tem času izjemen skeletni pokop. Analiza vseh skeletnih grobov iz starejše železne dobe iz Mengša je pokazala, da se je inhumacija pojavila že od konca 9./8. st. pr. n. št., tak način pokopa se je ohranil tudi v mlajšehalštatski čas. Nova odkritja potrjujejo, da je bil Mengeš v starejši železni dobi na meji interesnih območij posameznih skupnosti, še pose...

Antiquity, Jan 8, 2024

Geoarchaeological analysis of settlement stratigraphy is key to understanding continuity and chan... more Geoarchaeological analysis of settlement stratigraphy is key to understanding continuity and change in economic, social and cultural spaces within complex (proto-)urban sites. Here, preliminary micromorphological and micro-refuse data from the Pungrt hillfort demonstrate the potential of a fine-scaled geoarchaeology-based approach for understanding the structuring and reuse of space, not just within settlements but within individual households, through time.

Documenta Praehistorica, 2024

Largescale excavation at the Iron Age and Roman period Pungrt hillfort (8th century BC to 2nd cen... more Largescale excavation at the Iron Age and Roman period Pungrt hillfort (8th century BC to 2nd century AD) has revealed a distinctly urban character of the settlement in its best preserved Late Hallstatt phase from the 6th to 4th centuries BC. This study provides an important contribution to the understanding of the settlement’s internal organization and its socioeconomic development. By examining the previously unaddressed phenomena of settlement nucleation, population aggregation and urbanism along with the possibility of earlystate formation, the paper broadens the narrative on the fundamental social and political development in the southeastern Alpine region during the Early Iron Age and contributes to the wider field of early urbanism research.

Methodology by Luka Gruškovnjak

Abstract: The article discusses the archaeological surface survey method, the possibilities and l... more Abstract: The article discusses the archaeological surface survey
method, the possibilities and limitations of which are still not well
understood despite its long history of development. The main
directions of the method‘s development are outlined and some of
the basic concepts and methodological problems connected to the
archaeological surface record discussed. The main topics include
formation processes, the archaeological record in the ploughzone,
the relationship between the surface and subsurface records,
visibility, the problem of subsurface survey method and the scale
of observation, as well as concepts of site and off-site space.
Keywords: archaeological surface survey, archaeological
surface (and subsurface) record, formation processes, ploughzone,
visibility, scale of observation, site, off-site space

Abstract: The article reports on the international conference on Finds in the Landscape. New Pers... more Abstract: The article reports on the international conference
on Finds in the Landscape. New Perspectives and Results from
Archaeological Surveys. The topics discussed in the lectures
are presented thematically and supplement some of the topics
discussed in the article entitled Archaeological surface survey –
basic concepts and problems. They range from the possibilities
and limitations of surface surveying, the trend of point provenience
of surface artefacts, the demand for interdisciplinary regional
research, the interpretation of off-site distributions to the method of
systematic trial trenching and other topics.
Keywords: prospection, surface survey, point provenience,
interdisciplinarity and complementarity, off-site distributions,
forest survey, metal detectors, trial trenches

Proceedings from the 5th Scientific Conference Methodology and Archaeometry, 2019

When using archaeological surface survey method, be it for purposes of archaeological landscape r... more When using archaeological surface survey method, be it for purposes of archaeological landscape research or archaeological
resource evaluation, understanding visibility of archaeological record on the surface and factors affecting it
is of crucial importance. Surface visibility must always be considered on multiple levels and five of these can readily
be defined: (1) Visibility determined by geomorphic, pedogenic and other post-depositional formation processes. (2)
Visibility determined by the nature of the archaeological record. (3) Visibility determined by techniques and strategies
of the survey method. (4) Visibility determined by surface and other environmental conditions during the survey. (5)
Visibility determined by the human factor.
Without considering these levels and using methodological procedures designed to control their effects on survey
accuracy, any analysis and interpretation of survey results is at risk of being seriously erroneous and invalid. Furthermore,
we should always bear in mind that surface survey is only capable of detecting disturbed and exposed archaeological
record in the landscape. We are thus always dealing with incomplete distributions which primarily speak about
landscape taphonomy and its effects on preservation, visibility and integrity of archaeological record in the landscape.

Czajlik et al. (eds.) 2019, Researching Archaeological Landscapes Across Borders. Strategies, Methods and Decisions fort he 21st Century., 2019

Arheo 36, 2019

slovenščina), Jezikovne storitve Peresce (angleščina). Stavek: Andrej Preložnik. Tisk: Collegium ... more slovenščina), Jezikovne storitve Peresce (angleščina). Stavek: Andrej Preložnik. Tisk: Collegium graphicum. Naklada: 300 izvodov. Za vsebino prispevkov odgovarjajo avtorji. Imetniki moralnih in avtorskih pravic so posamezni avtorji. Tisk so finančno podprli: Ministrstvo za kulturo RS in Oddelek za arheologijo FF UL.

Proceedings from the 6th Scientific Conference Methodology and Archaeometry, 2020

The majority of archaeological contexts are located within the soil, therefore processes of soil ... more The majority of archaeological contexts are located within the soil, therefore processes of soil formation and soil geo-morphology play an important role in their formation history. These processes have important implications for the ways of observing and recording as well as understanding and interpreting these contexts. In order to demonstrate their implications a theoretical overview of only a few of those processes which seem most important for archaeology is given in this paper. This is accompanied by hypothetical profile depictions based on the presented theory in order to illustrate in a simplified manner some possible outcomes of the discussed processes reworking the archaeological record. The overview focusses on the difference between sediments and soil horizons and on processes of horizonation, bioturbation and additions or removals of material to or from the soil surface. It demonstrates that the principles of archaeological stratigraphy cannot be universally applied to sites altered by these processes. There the observed layers and contexts may not be the result of depositional events, be it anthropogenic or natural, to which these principles apply. Instead, they may be the result of in situ transformations of original contexts by long-term soil processes. In such cases, the principles of archaeological stratigraphy cannot be applied and the concept of stratigraphic contexts must be replaced with the concept of archaeological remains in soil context. The discussions of processes and accompanying hypothetical depictions in this paper should prove useful to archaeologists in the evaluation of such contexts and in thinking about how they may have been formed. However, the actual formation processes which resulted in the observed archaeological soil context can only be deciphered through interdisciplinary scientific research.

The analysed dark earth sequence was therefore created by the intertwined processes of cleaning, dumping, levelling and an array of pedogenic processes, including bioturbation.

Documenta Archaeologica 1, 2023

Arheologija v letu 2021, dediščina za javnost, Zbornik povzetkov, Strokovno srečanje Slovenskega arheološkega društva 13. in 14. junija 2022 v Atriju ZRC SAZU v Ljubljani, 2022

Arheologija v letu 2020, dediščina za javnost, Zbornik povzetkov, Strokovno srečanje Slovenskega arheološkega društva na spletni videokonferenci 10. decembra 2021, 2021

Arheologija v letu 2021, dediščina za javnost, Zbornik povzetkov, Strokovno srečanje Slovenskega arheološkega društva 13. in 14. junija 2022 v Atriju ZRC SAZU v Ljubljani, 2022

Iron Age Danube Route Magazine, 2022

Short news about the ongoing analyses of Pungrt settlement deposits and micro-artefact assemblages.

Arheologija v letu 2022: dediščina za javnost, 2023

Arheološki vestnik, 2023

Arheološki vestnik

Antiquity, Jan 8, 2024

Documenta Praehistorica, 2024

Proceedings from the 5th Scientific Conference Methodology and Archaeometry, 2019

Czajlik et al. (eds.) 2019, Researching Archaeological Landscapes Across Borders. Strategies, Methods and Decisions fort he 21st Century., 2019

Arheo 36, 2019

Proceedings from the 6th Scientific Conference Methodology and Archaeometry, 2020

Proceedings from the 6th Scientific Conference Methodology and Archaeometry

Proceedings from the 5th scientific conference Methodology and Archaeometry, 2019

When using archaeological surface survey method, be it for purposes of archaeological landscape r... more When using archaeological surface survey method, be it for purposes of archaeological landscape research or archaeological resource evaluation, understanding visibility of archaeological record on the surface and factors affecting it is of crucial importance. Surface visibility must always be considered on multiple levels and five of these can readily be defined: (1) Visibility determined by geomorphic, pedogenic and other post-depositional formation processes. (2) Visibility determined by the nature of the archaeological record. (3) Visibility determined by techniques and strategies of the survey method. (4) Visibility determined by surface and other environmental conditions during the survey. (5) Visibility determined by the human factor. Without considering these levels and using methodological procedures designed to control their effects on survey accuracy, any analysis and interpretation of survey results is at risk of being seriously erroneous and invalid. Furthermore, we should always bear in mind that surface survey is only capable of detecting disturbed and exposed archaeological record in the landscape. We are thus always dealing with incomplete distributions which primarily speak about landscape taphonomy and its effects on preservation, visibility and integrity of archaeological record in the landscape.

Arheo, 2022

Material transport across the landscape is one of the key formation processes affecting the archa... more Material transport across the landscape is one of the key formation processes affecting the archaeological record. It is primarily caused by a number of distinct erosion, transport, and deposition processes, which operate in different sections of the landscape and cause differences in the preservation of the archaeological record and our abilities to detect it. Therefore, this paper begins with a theoretical overview, which helps understand the relationship between topography, geomorphic processes, and soil formation, focusing primarily on the five slope elements model and soil thickness model. Both models are then applied to evaluate the relationship between field survey and excavation results at a selection of sites from Slovenian motorway research conducted between 1994 and 2009. The research question we focus on is whether topography allows us to predict landscape sections where field survey is not a suitable site discovery method because buried sites and transported archaeological finds in the topsoil can be expected there. Case studies demonstrate that by using the five slope elements model combined with a soil map, we can successfully identify those parts of the landscape where buried archaeological sites that field surveys cannot detect can be expected and where these methods mainly recover archaeological finds transported from elsewhere. These are backslopes, footslopes, and toeslopes, and areas with Fluvisols and Gleysols which call for adjustments of site discovery methodology. Nevertheless, given the differences between the present and past topography as well as a number of variations at the microtopographic scale, a detailed insight into variations of geomorphic and pedogenic processes can only be garnered with a subsurface inspection, during which the soil thickness model proves to be very useful. Furthermore, a detailed subsurface inspection allows for the reconstruction of sedimentation and soil formation through time, as well as the recognition of various anthropogenic interferences, which cannot be predicted with topographic analyses alone. Such information is crucial for planning archaeological site discovery field research and subsequent excavations since it enables identification of the depths to which testing for the presence of the archaeological record is required.

Journal of Field Archaeology, 2024

This paper deals with the effectiveness of archaeological field survey under different geomorphic... more This paper deals with the effectiveness of archaeological field survey under different geomorphic and topographic conditions. In particular, it addresses the informativeness of survey-recovered topsoil artifacts for discovering sites. To this end, the study uses the theoretical framework of five slope elements and soil thickness models and the data from a large development project, the Slovenian motorways, focusing on 24 case studies from backslope, footslope, and toeslope positions. Data on slope classification, soil classification, soil thickness, survey, and excavation results are used to determine the relationship between topsoil artifacts and the subsurface archaeological record at each site. The results show that topsoil artifacts on backslope, footslope, and toeslope positions are mainly transported and hold little value for site discovery. Sites on footslopes, toeslopes, and partly backslopes are mainly buried and undetectable by survey, which calls for other site discovery methods in these landscape positions. The study also points out that field survey can only detect disturbed sites and calls for rethinking the main objectives of its application.

Book of abstracts from a professional meeting aimed at starting the discussion about the need for... more Book of abstracts from a professional meeting aimed at starting the discussion about the need for more thorough investigations of Dark Earths in Slovenia.

Arheo, 2021

V zadnjih letih številni doživljamo ali vsaj opažamo različne težave na področju arheološke strok... more V zadnjih letih številni doživljamo ali vsaj opažamo različne težave na področju arheološke stroke v Sloveniji, od sistemskih neskladij do stisk v njej aktivnih posameznikov, ki so povezane z zaposlitvenimi možnostmi in praksami. Z namenom naslavljanja nekaterih izmed teh težav je bila v sodelovanju Slovenskega arheološkega društva in Kluba alumnov Oddelka za arheologijo FF UL decembra 2019 organizirana okrogla miza Poklic arheologa v Sloveniji. Razprava je med drugim sprožila pomembno vprašanje o perspektivah in težavah zaposlovanja na področju arheologije ter pokazala na trenutno pomanjkanje vpogleda v to problematiko. Vsi Javni sektor Zasebni sektor Slika 1. Starostna struktura vseh sodelujočih v anketi in glede na sektor.

Antiquity, Jan 8, 2024