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Call for Papers by Thomas Horst
The Third ISHMap symposium will be held on Friday, 3 rd and Saturday, 4 th June 2016 at the Natio... more The Third ISHMap symposium will be held on Friday, 3 rd and Saturday, 4 th June 2016 at the National Library of Portugal in Lisbon, Auditório BNP. The Organising Committee is composed of ISHMap, in collaboration with the "Centro Interuniversitário de História das Ciências e da Tecnologia (CIUHCT)" (University of Lisbon) and the "Biblioteca Nacional de Portugal" (BNP).
Books by Thomas Horst
https://pure.mpg.de/rest/items/item\_3039807\_7/component/file\_3058064/content In this paper, the ... more https://pure.mpg.de/rest/items/item_3039807_7/component/file_3058064/content
In this paper, the importance of the cosmographical activities of the Vienna astronomical “school” for the reception of the Tractatus de Sphaera is analyzed. First, the biographies of two main representatives of the Vienna mathematical/astronomical circle are presented: the Austrian astronomers, mathematicians, and instrument makers Georg von Peuerbach (1423–1461) and his student Johannes Müller von Königsberg (Regiomontanus, 1436–1476). Their studies influenced the cosmographical teaching at the University of Vienna enormously for the next century and are relevant to understanding what followed; therefore, the prosopographical introductions of these Vienna scholars have been included here, even if neither can be considered a real author of the Sphaera. Moreover, taking the examples of an impressive sixteenth-century miscellany (Austrian National Library, Cod. ser. nov. 4265, including the recently rediscovered cosmography by Sebastian Binderlius, compiled around 1518), the diversity of different cosmographical studies in the capital of the Habsburg Empire at the turning point between the Middle Ages and the early modern period is demonstrated. Handwritten comments in the Vienna edition of De sphaera (1518) also show how big the influence of Sacrobosco’s work remained as a didactical tool at the universities in the first decades of the sixteenth century—and how cosmographical knowledge was transformed and structured in early modern Europe by the editors and readers of the Sphaera.
Papers by Thomas Horst
Dicionário Biográfico de Cientistas, Engenheiros e Médicos em Portugal
Mitteilungen aus den Staatsbibliotheken in Berlin und München, 2019
A existência de um manuscrito do alemão Leonhard Thurneysser, natural de Basileia, iniciado em 15... more A existência de um manuscrito do alemão Leonhard Thurneysser, natural de Basileia, iniciado em 1555 "em casa do nobre senhor e cavaleiro lusitano, Senhor Damião de Gois", caiu, durante algumas décadas, no esquecimento dos historiadores. Contém relatos sobre numerosas plantas e animais observados pelo autor durante a sua estada em Portugal. Um outro aspeto muito curioso é uma descrição dos negros que observou em Lisboa. Embora o texto esteja escrito no alemão da época, a maior parte das designações das espécies vegetais e animais estão mencionadas em português. Está em curso um projeto de transcrição deste extenso documento.
Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutsch-portugiesischen Beziehungen / Para uma História das relações luso-alemãs, 2021
In the summer of 1989, the Austrian Academy of Sciences had an opportunity to take possession of ... more In the summer of 1989, the Austrian Academy of Sciences had an opportunity to take possession of a very important private library. Already while still alive Erich Woldan had provided for the fact that his library which shows one of the most extensive private collections in "Geographica" in Central Europe should go as a whole after his death to the Austrian academy of the sciences where it was made an inventory, finally, and was made to the public accessible. Today the collection named after him Woldan per year is used by more than 250 international scientists, but also by skilled private individuals and makes available constantly exhibits for national and international exhibitions. In the present double tape 24 authors argue with the most different access manners with one or several objects of the collection Woldan and give therefore a view on their variety and quality.
Zusammenfassung: Im Wiener Humanismus des beginnenden 16. Jahrhunderts standen Geographie und Kar... more Zusammenfassung: Im Wiener Humanismus des beginnenden 16. Jahrhunderts standen Geographie und Kartographie in hohem Ansehen. Einige Schüler des deutschen Erzhumanisten Konrad Celtis (1459–1508) verfassten geographische Werke und waren als Kartographen tätig. Grundlage des damaligen Kartenstudiums waren die ptolemäischen Karten, die in Wien in verschiedenen Druckausgaben vorlagen. Sie lagen auch den Manuskriptkarten zugrunde, welche den 1518 gedruckten Ausgaben der Scholien zu Pomponius Mela des aus St. Gallen stammenden Wiener Humanisten Joachim Vadian (1483/84–1551) beigebunden wurden. Bisher sind weltweit acht Exemplare dieses 26 Blätter zählenden handschriftlichen Kartenwerks bekannt. Die Manuskriptkarten wurden seit dem späten 18. Jahrhundert zwar gelegentlich erwähnt, aber nicht näher untersucht, bis sich in den letzten Jahren die Autoren dieses Beitrags unabhängig voneinander und mit unterschiedlichen Interessen mit den Karten befassten. Florian Mittenhuber stiess als Mitarbeiter der Ptolemaios-Forschungsstelle der Universität Bern bei der Sichtung der handschriftlichen Überlieferung der lateinischen Karten auf die St. Galler Exemplare, welche wenig später auch von Thomas Horst ausgewertet wurden. Bei Rudolf Gamper, damals Bibliothekar der Vadianischen Sammlung der Ortsbürgergemeinde St. Gallen, stand das biographische Interesse im Vordergrund. Chet Van Duzer fand weitere Exemplare in Chicago, Ljubljana und Paris und analysierte die unterschiedliche Farbgebung der Manuskriptkarten. In diesem Beitrag stehen die in Schweizer Bibliotheken erhaltenen Exemplare im Zentrum. Als Vorlage der Manuskriptkarten diente der Waldseemülleratlas von 1513; die Karten entstanden im Umfeld von Joachim Vadians Lehrtätigkeit an der Universität Wien. Anhand verschiedener Dokumente und Indizien lässt sich der Kontext der Entstehung rekonstruieren. Aus demselben Umfeld stammen zwei weitere, bislang kaum beachtete und nur handschriftlich überlieferte Einleitungen zur Geographie bzw. Kosmographie: die Introductorien von Joachim Vadian bzw. von Sebastian Bunderl, deren Inhalt und Überlieferung zum Schluss thematisiert werden. Ein Exkurs zum kosmographischen Werk des Pomponius Mela und eine ausführliche Beschreibung der in den Schweizer Bibliotheken erhaltenen Exemplare runden den Beitrag ab. Translated title: “Manuscript Maps in the Periphery of the Teaching Activity by Joachim Vadian in Vienna” Abstract: In the first decades of the sixteenth century, geography and cartography were valued sciences in Vienna, where Humanism flourished. Several students of the German Renaissance, including the humanist scholar and Neo-Latin poet Conrad Celtes (1459-1508) published geographical books and worked as cartographers. The basis for the study of maps at this time were the Ptolemaic charts, which were available in Vienna in several printed editions. They also were taken as the models for the manuscript maps that were bound with the 1518 edition of the “Scholien” of Pomponius Mela, edited by the Vienna humanist Joachim Vadian (1483/84-1551) from St. Gall, Switzerland. Until now only eight copies of this edition that include these manuscript map-cimelia (containing 26 sheets) are known worldwide. Some of these manuscript maps were mentioned occasionally since the late eighteenth century, but they have not been analyzed until the authors of this paper (independently of each other and with different interests) gave attention to that corpus in recent years. Florian Mittenhuber (as member of the “Ptolemaios-Forschungsstelle” at Berne University) came across to the copies in St. Gall while studying the manuscript tradition of Latin maps of Ptolemy’s Geography. Afterwards, these copies have been analyzed and interpreted by Thomas Horst. The former librarian of the “Vadianische Sammlung” in St. Gall, Rudolf Gamper, concentrated on Vadian’s biography. And Chet Van Duzer discovered further copies in Chicago, Ljubljana and Paris; he also has studied in particular the diverse hand-colouring of these manuscript maps. This paper deals primarily with the copies preserved in Swiss libraries. The basis of these manuscript maps was the atlas by Waldseemüller in the 1513 edition of Ptolemy’s Geography. The manuscript maps were created in the periphery of the teaching activity by Joachim Vadian at Vienna University. With the help of different documents and indications, the context of their genesis can be reconstructed. From the same environment originated two further, so-long rarely considered introductions to geography and cosmography, which only are available as manuscripts: these are the “Introductoria” by Joachim Vadian and Sebastian Bunderl, which are picked out as central theme with their index and tradition here at the end. An excursus on the cosmographical work by Pomponius Mela and a detailed description of all the copies preserved in Swiss libraries complete this paper. Titre traduit: « Cartes manuscrites dans le cadre de l'enseignement de…
KN - Journal of Cartography and Geographic Information, 2015
The Third ISHMap symposium will be held on Friday, 3 rd and Saturday, 4 th June 2016 at the Natio... more The Third ISHMap symposium will be held on Friday, 3 rd and Saturday, 4 th June 2016 at the National Library of Portugal in Lisbon, Auditório BNP. The Organising Committee is composed of ISHMap, in collaboration with the "Centro Interuniversitário de História das Ciências e da Tecnologia (CIUHCT)" (University of Lisbon) and the "Biblioteca Nacional de Portugal" (BNP).
https://pure.mpg.de/rest/items/item\_3039807\_7/component/file\_3058064/content In this paper, the ... more https://pure.mpg.de/rest/items/item_3039807_7/component/file_3058064/content
In this paper, the importance of the cosmographical activities of the Vienna astronomical “school” for the reception of the Tractatus de Sphaera is analyzed. First, the biographies of two main representatives of the Vienna mathematical/astronomical circle are presented: the Austrian astronomers, mathematicians, and instrument makers Georg von Peuerbach (1423–1461) and his student Johannes Müller von Königsberg (Regiomontanus, 1436–1476). Their studies influenced the cosmographical teaching at the University of Vienna enormously for the next century and are relevant to understanding what followed; therefore, the prosopographical introductions of these Vienna scholars have been included here, even if neither can be considered a real author of the Sphaera. Moreover, taking the examples of an impressive sixteenth-century miscellany (Austrian National Library, Cod. ser. nov. 4265, including the recently rediscovered cosmography by Sebastian Binderlius, compiled around 1518), the diversity of different cosmographical studies in the capital of the Habsburg Empire at the turning point between the Middle Ages and the early modern period is demonstrated. Handwritten comments in the Vienna edition of De sphaera (1518) also show how big the influence of Sacrobosco’s work remained as a didactical tool at the universities in the first decades of the sixteenth century—and how cosmographical knowledge was transformed and structured in early modern Europe by the editors and readers of the Sphaera.
Dicionário Biográfico de Cientistas, Engenheiros e Médicos em Portugal
Mitteilungen aus den Staatsbibliotheken in Berlin und München, 2019
A existência de um manuscrito do alemão Leonhard Thurneysser, natural de Basileia, iniciado em 15... more A existência de um manuscrito do alemão Leonhard Thurneysser, natural de Basileia, iniciado em 1555 "em casa do nobre senhor e cavaleiro lusitano, Senhor Damião de Gois", caiu, durante algumas décadas, no esquecimento dos historiadores. Contém relatos sobre numerosas plantas e animais observados pelo autor durante a sua estada em Portugal. Um outro aspeto muito curioso é uma descrição dos negros que observou em Lisboa. Embora o texto esteja escrito no alemão da época, a maior parte das designações das espécies vegetais e animais estão mencionadas em português. Está em curso um projeto de transcrição deste extenso documento.
Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutsch-portugiesischen Beziehungen / Para uma História das relações luso-alemãs, 2021
In the summer of 1989, the Austrian Academy of Sciences had an opportunity to take possession of ... more In the summer of 1989, the Austrian Academy of Sciences had an opportunity to take possession of a very important private library. Already while still alive Erich Woldan had provided for the fact that his library which shows one of the most extensive private collections in "Geographica" in Central Europe should go as a whole after his death to the Austrian academy of the sciences where it was made an inventory, finally, and was made to the public accessible. Today the collection named after him Woldan per year is used by more than 250 international scientists, but also by skilled private individuals and makes available constantly exhibits for national and international exhibitions. In the present double tape 24 authors argue with the most different access manners with one or several objects of the collection Woldan and give therefore a view on their variety and quality.
Zusammenfassung: Im Wiener Humanismus des beginnenden 16. Jahrhunderts standen Geographie und Kar... more Zusammenfassung: Im Wiener Humanismus des beginnenden 16. Jahrhunderts standen Geographie und Kartographie in hohem Ansehen. Einige Schüler des deutschen Erzhumanisten Konrad Celtis (1459–1508) verfassten geographische Werke und waren als Kartographen tätig. Grundlage des damaligen Kartenstudiums waren die ptolemäischen Karten, die in Wien in verschiedenen Druckausgaben vorlagen. Sie lagen auch den Manuskriptkarten zugrunde, welche den 1518 gedruckten Ausgaben der Scholien zu Pomponius Mela des aus St. Gallen stammenden Wiener Humanisten Joachim Vadian (1483/84–1551) beigebunden wurden. Bisher sind weltweit acht Exemplare dieses 26 Blätter zählenden handschriftlichen Kartenwerks bekannt. Die Manuskriptkarten wurden seit dem späten 18. Jahrhundert zwar gelegentlich erwähnt, aber nicht näher untersucht, bis sich in den letzten Jahren die Autoren dieses Beitrags unabhängig voneinander und mit unterschiedlichen Interessen mit den Karten befassten. Florian Mittenhuber stiess als Mitarbeiter der Ptolemaios-Forschungsstelle der Universität Bern bei der Sichtung der handschriftlichen Überlieferung der lateinischen Karten auf die St. Galler Exemplare, welche wenig später auch von Thomas Horst ausgewertet wurden. Bei Rudolf Gamper, damals Bibliothekar der Vadianischen Sammlung der Ortsbürgergemeinde St. Gallen, stand das biographische Interesse im Vordergrund. Chet Van Duzer fand weitere Exemplare in Chicago, Ljubljana und Paris und analysierte die unterschiedliche Farbgebung der Manuskriptkarten. In diesem Beitrag stehen die in Schweizer Bibliotheken erhaltenen Exemplare im Zentrum. Als Vorlage der Manuskriptkarten diente der Waldseemülleratlas von 1513; die Karten entstanden im Umfeld von Joachim Vadians Lehrtätigkeit an der Universität Wien. Anhand verschiedener Dokumente und Indizien lässt sich der Kontext der Entstehung rekonstruieren. Aus demselben Umfeld stammen zwei weitere, bislang kaum beachtete und nur handschriftlich überlieferte Einleitungen zur Geographie bzw. Kosmographie: die Introductorien von Joachim Vadian bzw. von Sebastian Bunderl, deren Inhalt und Überlieferung zum Schluss thematisiert werden. Ein Exkurs zum kosmographischen Werk des Pomponius Mela und eine ausführliche Beschreibung der in den Schweizer Bibliotheken erhaltenen Exemplare runden den Beitrag ab. Translated title: “Manuscript Maps in the Periphery of the Teaching Activity by Joachim Vadian in Vienna” Abstract: In the first decades of the sixteenth century, geography and cartography were valued sciences in Vienna, where Humanism flourished. Several students of the German Renaissance, including the humanist scholar and Neo-Latin poet Conrad Celtes (1459-1508) published geographical books and worked as cartographers. The basis for the study of maps at this time were the Ptolemaic charts, which were available in Vienna in several printed editions. They also were taken as the models for the manuscript maps that were bound with the 1518 edition of the “Scholien” of Pomponius Mela, edited by the Vienna humanist Joachim Vadian (1483/84-1551) from St. Gall, Switzerland. Until now only eight copies of this edition that include these manuscript map-cimelia (containing 26 sheets) are known worldwide. Some of these manuscript maps were mentioned occasionally since the late eighteenth century, but they have not been analyzed until the authors of this paper (independently of each other and with different interests) gave attention to that corpus in recent years. Florian Mittenhuber (as member of the “Ptolemaios-Forschungsstelle” at Berne University) came across to the copies in St. Gall while studying the manuscript tradition of Latin maps of Ptolemy’s Geography. Afterwards, these copies have been analyzed and interpreted by Thomas Horst. The former librarian of the “Vadianische Sammlung” in St. Gall, Rudolf Gamper, concentrated on Vadian’s biography. And Chet Van Duzer discovered further copies in Chicago, Ljubljana and Paris; he also has studied in particular the diverse hand-colouring of these manuscript maps. This paper deals primarily with the copies preserved in Swiss libraries. The basis of these manuscript maps was the atlas by Waldseemüller in the 1513 edition of Ptolemy’s Geography. The manuscript maps were created in the periphery of the teaching activity by Joachim Vadian at Vienna University. With the help of different documents and indications, the context of their genesis can be reconstructed. From the same environment originated two further, so-long rarely considered introductions to geography and cosmography, which only are available as manuscripts: these are the “Introductoria” by Joachim Vadian and Sebastian Bunderl, which are picked out as central theme with their index and tradition here at the end. An excursus on the cosmographical work by Pomponius Mela and a detailed description of all the copies preserved in Swiss libraries complete this paper. Titre traduit: « Cartes manuscrites dans le cadre de l'enseignement de…
KN - Journal of Cartography and Geographic Information, 2015
Der am Übergang vom Spätmittelalter zur Frühen Neuzeit im deutsch-italienischen Kulturbereich wir... more Der am Übergang vom Spätmittelalter zur Frühen Neuzeit im deutsch-italienischen Kulturbereich wirkende, aus Kues an der Mosel stammende Philosoph Nikolaus von Kues (Nicolaus Cusanus, 1401-1464, seit 1448 Kardinal) ist aufgrund seines vielfältigen Schaffens auf sehr unterschiedlichen Wissensgebieten (Theologie und Mystik, Kirchenreform und Religionsdialog, Mathematik, Chronologie und Astronomie) sicherlich eine der bedeutendsten und schillerndsten Persönlichkeiten des Humanismus. Sein Leben ist mittels zahlreicher Detailstudien sowie durch die Reihe Acta Cusana (derzeit ediert bis 1453) und die 20-bändige cusanische Werkausgabe Opera Omnia bestens erschlossen. 1 Umso erstaunlicher ist, dass bislang-wenn man von den älteren biographischen Studien zu Nikolaus von Kues 2 und zu seiner Philosophie 3 einmal absieht-noch kein Handbuch zum Leben und Werk des Universalgenies in deutscher Sprache vorlag. 4 Anlässlich seines 550. Todestages wurde nun von Mitarbeitern des Trierer Instituts für Cusanus-Forschung der hier anzuzeigene, umfangreiche Band, welcher dem jüngst verstorbenen Theologen Klaus Reinhardt (1935-2014, Direktor des Cusanus-Instituts zwischen 1993 und 2007) gewidmet ist, herausgegeben. Das Handbuch, das nicht nur dem Forscher, sondern auch dem interessierten Studierenden einen ersten, umfassenden Überblick über das Leben und Werk des großen Philosophen und Theologen bietet, ist in drei Großkapitel samt einem längeren Anhang gegliedert. Es enthält rund 35 Beiträge, die von insgesamt 19 internationalen Cusanus-Spezialisten verfasst wurden, welche hier in bestmöglicher Weise ihr breites Fachwissen einbringen konnten. Das erste Kapitel beschreibt "Nikolaus von Kues in seiner Zeit" (11-128). Es ist zwar sehr lobenswert, dass dieser Abschnitt mit einer kurzen zeithistorischen Einführung (15-30) beginnt, doch hätte die Mitherausgeberin Alexandra Geissler in ihrem Überblick zu den politischen Entwicklungen im Heiligen Römischen Reich Deutscher Nation hier auch die Situation auf der iberischen Halbinsel ausführlicher darstellen können. 5
Journal of Map & Geography Libraries, 2020
Abstract This paper deals with the unwritten story of one of the largest collections of early-mod... more Abstract This paper deals with the unwritten story of one of the largest collections of early-modern military maps in pre-war Germany, its later dispersion to different institutions, as well as the attempts to reconstruct this cimelia or treasured library of the former Bavarian Army, founded at the beginning of the nineteenth century. During World War II most of the maps of the Wehrkreisbücherei VII were stored in several locations outside of Munich, and survived destruction. After 76 years we can reconstruct the unwritten odyssey of this important map collection. One part was integrated into the Bavarian State Library, where some valuable manuscript maps were recently cataloged. The largest section was taken by American soldiers to the Library of Congress in Washington D.C., where it was stored for more than a decade. This cache was restored to Germany in 1962, when a political dispute arose between the German State and the Free State of Bavaria that was not settled until 1968. This collection became part of the Wehrbereichsbibliothek VI, located since 1978 at Munich’s Bundeswehr University. Unfortunately, due to political decisions in 1984, this section was relocated to a provincial museum.
KN - Journal of Cartography and Geographic Information, 2009
Anlässlich des 850. Stadtgeburtstags der bayerischen Landeshauptstadt wird im vorliegenden Beitra... more Anlässlich des 850. Stadtgeburtstags der bayerischen Landeshauptstadt wird im vorliegenden Beitrag die Kartographiegeschichte der Stadt behandelt: Dabei ist zu konstatieren, dass München erstmals im ausgehenden Mittelalter auf Germania-Karten (so bei Nicolaus Cusanus, Erhard Etzlaub und auf gedruckten Ptolemäus-Ausgaben) auftaucht. Zudem ist die Stadt in den Regionalkarten Bayerns sowie in zahlreichen Veduten, Kartenmanuskripten und ersten Stadtplänen in der frühen Neuzeit kartographisch erfasst worden.
Imago Mundi, 2018
Who are the target students? How did we recruit? • Pathways website, narrated PowerPoint, face-to... more Who are the target students? How did we recruit? • Pathways website, narrated PowerPoint, face-to-face • In-class and email announcements in 28 introductory level science and education courses at WMU and two partner community colleges • Applicants submitted an application form, purpose statement, transcripts, and two letters of recommendation
Annemarie JORDAN-GSCHWEND (Centro de História d’Aquém e d’Além-Mar, Lisboa and Switzerland) Shopp... more Annemarie JORDAN-GSCHWEND (Centro de História d’Aquém e d’Além-Mar, Lisboa and Switzerland) Shopping in the Renaissance – Merchants as Cultural Mediators in Spain, Portugal and their Overseas Empires
e.Journal of Portuguese History, 2015
Maps in History, 2018
"We are catching up with previous ‘How I got into Cartography’ interviewees. They also have been ... more "We are catching up with previous ‘How I got into Cartography’ interviewees. They also have been very busy since ‘Maps in History’ (MiH) spoke to them last. Read the lastest from Mario, Thomas and Desiree…"
Call for Papers (Rennes [France], 21-23 march 2019) Frequent since the 16th century in several r... more Call for Papers (Rennes [France], 21-23 march 2019)
Frequent since the 16th century in several regions, produced in quantity throughout Europe in the 18th century, land-plots mapping didn’t wait for the Napoleonic cadastre to conquer the continent. They were already numerous in colonial America, but also in Japan during the Edo period and during the Qing Empire in China. Despite their richness, these sources are still considered as secondary documents, dependent on a written corpus which could provide, alone, the legitimate subject of a historical study. Nevertheless the identification, digitization and online publishing of old maps have accelerated and keep busy archivists, curators, archaeologists and researchers. But the same can’t be said of their historical analysis, despite the work done by rural historians and historians of cartography. Many questions only find answers at the local or national level, while they concern processes that are visible on a continental or even global scale. In addition to the fragmentation of academic traditions, the main difficulty for historians is to consider sources rooted in a variety of social, economic and political systems in the Early modern period and often cut off from their documentary context by the own logic of collecting and conserving archival documents. We wish to overcome these obstacles by engaging in a comparison of the logic of production and the social uses of these maps in the Early modern period. The expression ‘rural land-plots mapping’ refers to any type of graphical representation of plots of land with the same crop and belonging to the same owner, in a socio-legal context where there is a superposition and a diversity of property rights. It excepts a priori urban plans, but also general cadastres established by states in the 19th century.
This conference will bring together researchers with a thorough knowledge of a large corpus of maps. The purpose of the conference is the preparation of a synthetic publication on the subject – which won’t be limited to the proceedings of the conference. The main criteria for the selection of the papers will be the novelty and the richness of the proposed approaches, as well as the diversity of the geographical origins of the studied corpora, in order to cover the widest space possible. Abstracts of paper proposals must be sent by e-mail to the two organizers (maximum 3,500 characters), as well as a brief CV, before June 6, 2018. The languages of the conference are French and English.
(annie.antoine@univ-rennes2.fr benjamin.landais@univ-avignon.fr)
Annemarie JORDAN-GSCHWEND (Centro de História d’Aquém e d’Além-Mar, Lisboa and Switzerland) S... more Annemarie JORDAN-GSCHWEND
(Centro de História d’Aquém e d’Além-Mar, Lisboa and
Switzerland)
Shopping in the Renaissance – Merchants as Cultural Mediators in Spain, Portugal and their Overseas Empires