Menelaos Apostolou | University of Nicosia (original) (raw)

Papers by Menelaos Apostolou

Evolutionary Psychological Science

A considerable proportion of people living in Western societies are single, i.e., they do not hav... more A considerable proportion of people living in Western societies are single, i.e., they do not have an intimate partner. Recent research has indicated that about half of these instances are involuntary-people want to be in a relationship, but face difficulties in attracting partners. Within the context of an evolutionary theoretical framework, the current study aims to estimate the occurrence of involuntary singlehood in the Greek cultural context and to assess its impact on emotional wellbeing and on life satisfaction. Using an online sample of 735 Greek-speaking participants (431 women and 304 men), it was found that nearly 40% of those who were single were involuntarily so. It was also found that involuntary singles experienced significantly more negative emotions and lower life satisfaction than voluntary singles and people in a relationship.

Personality and Individual Differences , 2019

Infidelity is a widespread phenomenon across different cultures. Yet, not all people are unfaithf... more Infidelity is a widespread phenomenon across different cultures. Yet, not all people are unfaithful to their partners, and the current study aims to identify the reasons that motivate individuals to hold back from cheating. For this purpose, we developed an evolutionary theoretical framework which could enable a better understanding of the ultimate reasons that motivate people not to cheat on their partners. Furthermore, using a combination of qualitative research methods, we have identified 47 proximate reasons that could prevent people from cheating. By using quantitative research methods in a sample of 576 Greek-speaking participants, we classified these reasons in eight broad factors and two broader domains. One domain reflected considerations about the potential costs of cheating, and the other, considerations about the benefits of the current relationship. Women indicated a higher propensity not to cheat than men, especially if they were satisfied with their relationship , and because they would feel guilty. We also found that, the higher participants scored in con-scientiousness the lower their propensity to cheat was, while the higher participants scored in openness the higher their propensity to cheat was.

In the current research, we aimed to identify the reasons that could drive people to get a divorc... more In the current research, we aimed to identify the reasons that could drive people to get a divorce. In Study 1, we employed qualitative research methods, and we identified 62 reasons that could potentially drive people to get a divorce. Using quantitative research methods, in Study 2 we classified these reasons into 7 broader factors. We found that being a harmful spouse was the most important factor for divorce, followed by incompatibility and in-law problems. We also found significant sex differences in several factors such as women indicating a higher willingness than men to divorce a harmful spouse. In addition, participants with children were less willing to divorce a harmful spouse than those who had no children. Finally, using second-order principal components analysis, we classified the 7 factors into 2 broader domains of reasons for getting a divorce.

A B S T R A C T It has been recently argued that heterosexual men, as opposed to heterosexual wom... more A B S T R A C T It has been recently argued that heterosexual men, as opposed to heterosexual women, find same-sex attraction and contact desirable in a partner. The current paper employs an online sample of 775 heterosexual participants in order to examine this sex difference and asses its evolutionary implications. Results showed that just over half of heterosexual men preferred some level of same-sex attraction and contact in a female partner. On the other hand, the vast majority of heterosexual women did not prefer same-sex attraction and contact in a partner. This sex difference remained significant after controlling for religiosity and porn consumption. In addition, it was found that men preferred same-sex attraction and contact more in a short-term than in a long-term partner. Moreover, men indicated a stronger preference for their partners to engage in same-sex contacts where they would also participate, than to engage in same-sex contacts without themselves participating. It was also found that men did not consider same-sex attraction to be an important selection criterion for a partner.

Parents and their children are genetically related but not genetically identical, a fact that lea... more Parents and their children are genetically related but not genetically identical, a fact that leads to conflict between the two. One such domain of conflict is mate choice, where in-law and mate preferences diverge. The current research examined this divergence in preferences in the Chinese culture and how it varied across cultural contexts. More specifically, we have employed an online sample of 356 Chinese families, and we asked parents to rate the importance of several traits in a prospective spouse for their children and their children to rate the importance of the same traits in a prospective spouse for themselves. Comparisons of parents' and children's answers indicated a disagreement in several domains including good looks and family oriented. It was also found that there was more disagreement between parents and sons than between parents and daughters. Finally, the responses of Chinese parents and their children in the current study were compared with the responses of Greek Cypriot parents and their children from a previous study. It was found that, across several domains, there was more disagreement between parents and sons in the Chinese sample, while for the family oriented and the chastity, there was more parents–sons and parents–daughters disagreement in the Chinese sample. The implications of these findings were further examined.

Children require considerable resources such as time and money to be raised. Still, despite the h... more Children require considerable resources such as time and
money to be raised. Still, despite the heavy costs involved, most
people do decide to have children, a fact that raises the
question of what motivates them to do so. Moreover, after
having one or more children, people decide not to have
additional ones, even though they might still be fertile. This
raises the question of what motivates people to terminate
procreation. The present paper aims to address these questions
using a combination of qualitative and quantitative research
methods. In Study 1, we used in-depth interviews and
open-ended questionnaires that lead to the identification of
66 reasons for which people have children and 23 reasons for
which people stop having children. In Study 2, we used
principal component analysis that classified these reasons in
broader motivation domains, 15 for procreating and 4 for
terminating procreation. Sex differences were examined in each
domain. By placing procreation in an evolutionary framework,
this study aims to provide a deeper understanding of the
motives that drive people toward and away from the process of
having children.

A B S T R A C T About one in five women are not attracted exclusively to members of the opposite ... more A B S T R A C T About one in five women are not attracted exclusively to members of the opposite sex. This high prevalence of same-sex attractions constitutes an evolutionary puzzle as they appear to impair reproductive success. It has recently been proposed that, one reason behind such high prevalence is a male preference for same-sex attraction in women. The male choice hypothesis predicts that heterosexual women who experience same-sex attractions would be more willing than heterosexual women who do not experience such attractions to have sex with other women. It predicts further that heterosexual women who experience same-sex attractions would be more willing than heterosexual women to engaging in extra-pair copulations with a woman than with a man. Evidence from an online sample of 707 heterosexual women found strong support for both predictions. It was also found that about one in four heterosexual women would consider having sex with another woman in order to satisfy their long-term partner, and about one in two heterosexual women would react negatively to such a suggestion by their partner.

Mankind Quarterly

Ecological differences between societies that base their subsistence on hunting and gathering, as... more Ecological differences between societies that base their subsistence on hunting and gathering, as opposed to agriculture and animal husbandry, result in different rates of violent conflict. The aim of the present study is to test the hypothesis that pre-industrial societies which base their subsistence on agro-pastoralism have higher rates of internal and external violent conflict, and consequently experience stronger male-male competition, than societies which base their subsistence on hunting and gathering. Analysis of 19 variables from the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample provides strong support for this hypothesis. Based on these findings, it is argued that the agropastoral revolution has resulted in the strengthening of male-male competition. The consequences on mate choice due to the mismatch between ancestral conditions, where violent male-male competition had been generally strong, and contemporary conditions where it is extremely weak, are also explored.

The notion that female sexuality is fluid, meaning that women can experience attractions for eith... more The notion that female sexuality is fluid, meaning that women can experience attractions for either men or women depending on the circumstances, has been widely accepted by the academic community. Accordingly, scholars have attempted to develop evolutionary models that could explain why selection forces have favored sexual fluidity in women. The present paper reviews longitudinal studies on sexual attraction which indicate that the great majority of women do not have a fluid sexuality, but have instead stable attractions over time. Moreover, the current paper reviews studies on arousal, in order to demonstrate that they indicate a weak correlation between sexual arousal and sexual attraction in women, and not that women are attracted to both sexes. The evolutionary implications of the findings on female sexuality are further explored.

There are reasons to believe that the mechanisms involved in mating, evolved in a context where m... more There are reasons to believe that the mechanisms involved in mating, evolved in a context where marriages were arranged and male-male competition was strong. Thus, they may not work well in a post-industrial context, where mating is not regulated and where male-male competition is weak. As a consequence of the mismatch between ancestral and modern conditions, several individuals may face difficulties in the domain of mating. This study aimed to estimate the prevalence rates of poor mating performance and to identify some of its predictors. In particular, evidence from 1894 Greek and Greek-Cypriot participants from three independent studies, indicated that about one in five individuals found intimate relationships difficult, about one in two experienced difficulties in either starting or keeping a relationship, and about one in five experienced difficulties in both starting and keeping a relationship. Moreover, it was found that sexual functioning, self-esteem, self-perceived mate value, choosiness, personality, attention to looks, and mating effort were significant predictors of poor mating performance. It was also found that men and women closely overlapped in their mating performance, while age did not predict how well people do in the domain of mating.

Across different times and cultures, parents exercise considerable influence over their children'... more Across different times and cultures, parents exercise considerable influence over their children's mate choices. When they do so, parents are looking for specific traits in a prospective daughter-and son-in-law. Using a sample of 674 parents, the current research investigated in-law preferences in China. Participants rated 88 different traits, which were clustered in 10 different preference domains. In-law preferences were found to be contingent on the sex of the in-law and the sex of the parent. The data from the current study were compared with data from a different study which took place in the Republic of Cyprus. It was found that preferences varied in the two samples, but specific cultural differences were identified. It was also found that for both samples, the 10 different domains clustered in two supra-domains. The first supra-domain, where personality traits clustered, was preferred more by both Chinese and Greek-Cypriot parents than the second domain, where the rest of the traits clustered.

Across different times and cultures, parents play an important role in influencing their children... more Across different times and cultures, parents play an important role in influencing their children's mating decisions. When they do so, they aim to forge useful alliances with other parents which raises the question of what parents look for in the latter. The current research aims to address this question. In particular, we employed an online sample of 925 Chinese parents who were asked to rate the desirability of 88 traits in the parents of prospective mates for their children. Principal components analysis classified these traits in eight factors for the mothers and 10 factors of interest for the fathers of their children's mates. We also found that parents had a well-defined hierarchy of preferences, fathers, and mothers were in agreement in what they looked for in a prospective in-law, but their preferences were contingent to the sex of the in-law.

Across different cultures and across different times, parents exercise considerable influence ove... more Across different cultures and across different times, parents exercise considerable influence over their children's mate choices. When exercising such influence, parents are interested in finding daughters-and sons-in-law who are similar to them and to their children. In this paper, the preference for similarity was examined in China. On the basis of a sample of 534 Chinese parents, it was found that mothers and fathers preferred as daughters-and sons-in-law individuals who were similar to them and to their children, and who came from families of similar background. Comparisons were also made between the preference for similarity of Greek-Cypriot parents from previous studies and the preference for similarity of Chinese parents from the current study. The results indicated that the two groups converged considerably in their preferences. However, differences also existed, predominantly over religious and ethnic background.

People, predominantly men, spend considerable resources in engaging in hunting animals for sport.... more People, predominantly men, spend considerable resources in engaging in hunting animals for sport. Such activity is puzzling, as men take risk and sacrifice valuable resources in killing animals, the meat of which they do not need for their subsistence. Toward solving this puzzle, an evolutionary framework was proposed, where the division of labor in ancestral human societies has resulted in men and women having evolved different mechanisms that motivate them to engage in different activities. On the basis of this framework, two hypotheses were derived. First, on average, men would tend to find hunting an enjoyable activity, while women would tend to find gathering an enjoyable activity. Second, on average, men would be willing to engage in hunting, and women would be willing to engage in gathering. Evidence from two independent studies found strong support for both hypotheses.

Prevalence studies indicate that about one in five women experience some degree of same-sex attra... more Prevalence studies indicate that about one in five women experience some degree of same-sex attraction. The evolutionary origins of such attraction are not well understood. Accordingly, this paper proposed a theoretical framework where, during the period of human evolution, same-sex attractions in women were under positive selection. The source of positive selection has been male preferences for opposite-sex sex partners who experienced same-sex attractions. This theoretical framework was used to generate four predictions that were tested in two online studies which employed a total of 1509 heterosexual participants. It was found that heterosexual women did not desire partners who experienced same-sex attractions, but a considerable proportion of heterosexual men desired partners who experienced same-sex attractions. In addition, it was found that men were more sexually excited than women by the same-sex infidelity of their partners, and they desired more than women, their opposite-sex partners to have sex with same-sex individuals. Finally, participants' preferences were contingent on the seriousness of the relationships, with same-sex attraction to be preferred more in short-term than in a long-term partner. These findings were employed in understanding the evolutionary origins of same-sex attraction in women.

Mate choice involves intense manipulation between the parties involved. This research investigate... more Mate choice involves intense manipulation between the parties involved. This research investigates the manipulation tactics that individuals use in two different scenarios, namely, in order to keep a distance from their mates' parents and in order to secure their help in maintaining an intimate relationship with their children. Study 1 found 29 acts that individuals used to keep the parents of their mates at a distance and 22 acts that individuals used to secure the help of their mates' parents in maintaining a relationship with their children. Study 2 employed a sample of 352 individuals and classified the former in six and the latter in two distinct manipulation tactics. Study 3 employed a sample of 306 parents to assess the effectiveness of the different manipulation tactics.

People do not always look for mates, and frequently choose to stay single, at least for some time... more People do not always look for mates, and frequently choose to stay single, at least for some time. This study puts forward an evolutionary framework in which people prefer to stay single because doing so either increases their future mating success or because they have traits which prevent them from being able to attract a mate. The study aims further to identify the specific reasons that drive people to stay single, to classify them in broader reason categories and to investigate their contingencies. Accordingly, by using a combination of qualitative research methods, Study 1 finds 76 different reasons. By using a sample of 1096 participants, Study 2 applied first order principal components analysis and classified these reasons to 16 reason factors. By using second order principal components analysis, it classified these 16 reason factors to three reason domains. Finally, it was found that sex, age and personality significantly predict the reasons that drive individuals to stay single.

Evidence from the anthropological and historical records indicates that, in contemporary and ance... more Evidence from the anthropological and historical records indicates that, in contemporary and ancestral prein-dustrial societies, mate choice is regulated with parents choosing spouses for their children. On the basis of this evidence, it has been argued that most of human evolution took place in a context where individuals had limited space in which to exercise choice. Nevertheless, even in this context, mate choice can still be exercised. Using evidence from the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample, the current study found that, in an arranged marriage setting, there is a considerable space for individuals to exercise mate choice in premarital relationships, in extramarital relationships, and in forced sex or rape. These patterns do not vary considerably between societies of different subsistence types. However, premarital relationships were less common and rape was more common in societies where arranged marriage was the dominant mode of long-term mating. The evolutionary implications of these findings are further discussed.

A small but important portion of the population is attracted to individuals of the same sex. This... more A small but important portion of the population is attracted to individuals of the same sex. This phenomenon raises the question, why selection forces have allowed such dispositions to exist in the population. The weak selection pressures hypothesis, argues that same-sex attraction has been the result of weak selection pressures during the period of human evolution. Such pressures were predominantly the consequence of arranged marriage in which individuals, irrespectively of their attractions, are mated to opposite-sex partners. Arranged marriage is more common in societies which base their subsistence on agriculture and animal husbandry than in societies which base their subsistence on hunting and gathering. Accordingly, it is predicted that homosexuality would be more prevalent in the former than in the latter societies. Using anthropolog-ical evidence from the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample, the present study finds support for this hypothesis. The evolutionary implications of this evidence are further discussed.

People exhibit a strong interest in doing and watching sports. This interest has triggered intens... more People exhibit a strong interest in doing and watching sports. This interest has triggered intensive theorizing and empirical research on its evolutionary origins. The present research advances this line of work by testing existing and novel predictions derived from evolutionary hypotheses on the motivation to do and watch sports. Study 1 identified 36 motives for doing sports, including being entertained and to show-off abilities, and 27 motives for watching sports, including to support one's team and to improve mood. Study 2 applied principal components analysis to classify these motives into nine broader motivation domains with regard to doing sports and into six broader motivation domains with regard to watching sports. On this basis, several predictions derived from evolutionary hypotheses were tested on each domain of motivation. In several domains, significant main and interactions effects of sex, age, partner status, and being a parent were found, which are consistent with the predictions of the evolutionary hypotheses.

Evolutionary Psychological Science

Personality and Individual Differences , 2019

Mankind Quarterly