Jamie Cleland | University of South Australia (original) (raw)
Papers by Jamie Cleland
Ethnic and Racial Studies, 2024
This article commentary highlights the pattern of findings from various projects conducted in the... more This article commentary highlights the pattern of findings from various projects conducted in the United Kingdom on football fans and in Australia on football, Australian Rules football, and rugby league fans, regarding the extent of fan racism present in each sport. It is from these projects I argue that toxic Whiteness is present in a White dominant society through a practice that locates the characteristics associated with Whiteness (power, privilege, dominance, supremacy, difference) at the top of the racial hierarchy. Although Whites can consciously or unconsciously express or resist engaging in racist behaviour, I argue that expressions of racism that are meant to cause harm or distress to “Other” individuals or groups are at the core of toxic Whiteness.
Soccer and Society, 2024
Eighty percent of football fans involved in the present study do not want EURO2024 to be deployed... more Eighty percent of football fans involved in the present study do not want EURO2024 to be deployed as a platform for protest against the extensively covered conflicts in Ukraine and Gaza. The majority accept that, as one of 2024’s global sports spectacles, EURO2024, like the Paris Olympics, will be watched by billions and command the attention of the global media. They also understand how sport has catalysed geopolitical change, for example, playing a role in isolating apartheid-era South Africa. Yet a majority believe EURO2024 is a sporting event and, as such, should not be weaponized by social and political events. This commentary is based on a self-contained project involving 1010 fans conducted during April–May 2024, though it continues themes the authors have explored in the recent past, their central question being: has sport been prominently politicized since Colin Kaepernick’s gesture in 2016? Since then, many of the world’s governing organizations have relaxed their traditional positions on political and socio-cultural issues and, in some cases, have approved of athletes taking the knee as a symbol of their commitment to inclusivity. Individual athletes have displayed their values, but fans are not convinced of their sincerity. They also question governing organizations’ genuineness. Many are sceptical enough to believe football’s corporate sponsors are the chief beneficiaries of protest. Fans agree football can be a potent platform on which to mount social and political missions. They just do not want it to happen during EURO2024.
Chapter 32 in Routledge Handbook of Sport, Leisure and Social Justice, 2024
This chapter explores athlete activism, focussing on its expression via national anthem protests ... more This chapter explores athlete activism, focussing on its expression via national anthem protests or expressions of solidarity at sport events. We survey this type of activism and map its evolution. In doing so, we highlight three environments – the US, Australia, and Northern Ireland – as epicentres for anthemic protests and expressions of solidarity. In these varying contexts, we explore the bases for, and effectiveness of, these types of athlete activism.
International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 2024
This article explores spectator racism across three high-profile professional men's football code... more This article explores spectator racism across three high-profile professional men's football codes in Australia (Australian Football League, National Rugby League and the A-League). To pursue this goal, the study conducted an online survey from April 2021 to June 2021, securing 2047 responses. Our focus in this article centres on those participants who self-identified as White to gather their insights on racism as they witnessed and understood it being expressed in the context of attending a professional men's football code match in Australia. Applying Pierre Bourdieu's concept of habitus to theorise why some White spectators overtly express racist language and behaviour, our findings indicated the resilience of Whiteness as a source of power and domination, with many White participants reporting they had witnessed racial bigotry in recent years. Concurrently, many demonstrated anti-racist sensibilities, expressing frustration that change has been limited, if at all. Some participants suggested racism is an individual failing rather than being subject to institutions and community norms. From that perspective, racism is viewed as a personal choice rather than a failure of society.
International Journal of Sport Management and Marketing, 2024
To date, limited research has examined how sports fans feel about the response by sportswear bran... more To date, limited research has examined how sports fans feel about the response by sportswear brands towards athletes who are paid to endorse their brand but also publicly engage in social and political activism. In addressing this shortfall, this article presents the views of 1,001 US sports fans, collected via an online survey from May 2021 to June 2021. Locating the findings within two prominent themes-social responsibility strategy and financial motives-two-thirds (66%) of the participants felt that sportswear brands had become more supportive of athletes publicly engaging in social and political activism, whilst one-third (34%) felt that little had changed from what athletes faced in previous generations. The article concludes by outlining that as athlete activism becomes more prominent in the US, both inside sports arenas and on social media platforms, the social responsibility strategy of sportswear brands will become an even more important feature in the consumer culture of US sports fans.
Social Media in Sport: Evidence-Based Perspectives, 2023
This chapter presents the views of 1,001 United States (US) sports fans, collected via an online ... more This chapter presents the views of 1,001 United States (US) sports fans, collected via an online survey from May 2021 to June 2021, towards the increasing presence of US-based athlete activism inside sports arenas and communicated via social media platforms like Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram. Two-thirds (65%) supported an athlete's right to use their high-profile position to draw attention to a social or political issue or cause, whilst one-third (35%) did not support such actions. The chapter concludes by outlining that as various forms of social and political activism are being used by a growing number of prominent US-based athletes, sports fans are increasingly having to assess the impact this has on their experience of following particular athletes and teams in the US.
Soccer & Society, 2024
Using data from a 2020 survey of 2,663 football fans, this paper explores their perspectives on L... more Using data from a 2020 survey of 2,663 football fans, this paper explores
their perspectives on LGBTQ+ language at UK men's football matches.
Results revealed that 95 percent of participants expressed their support
for LGBTQ+ players, challenging the assumption that football fans are
homophobic. Paradoxically, 78 percent acknowledged encountering language with LGBTQ+ themes when attending stadiums but interpret this in contrasting ways: 41 percent as homophobic and 37 percent as playful,
humorous ‘banter’, acknowledging the fine line between humor and
offense. Additionally, 22 percent reported not hearing any such language.
In this paper, we attempt to make sense of the inconsistency between the
presence of seemingly liberal attitudes and the partial acceptance of
illiberal banter from this sample. To reconcile this paradoxical position,
we find utility in the work of Pierre Bourdieu and his theory of practice,
with particular emphasis on the aspect of social transformation.
Sport in Society, 2023
Since 2020, the politics of sport have been transformed: traditional assumptions about the role ... more Since 2020, the politics of sport have been transformed: traditional
assumptions about the role of sport in exercising its power and exerting
its influence in areas once regarded as taboo have changed. This commentary paper is based on qualitative responses drawn from an online sample of 1067 participants, who were invited to share their perspectives on a variety of issues regarding the politics of sport. It documents the end of the separation of sport and politics and explores how fans respond to sport’s new involvement in social and moral affairs, such as racism and other forms of inequality. The majority of fans understand that sport offers an effective platform and think it should use its capacity to influence change. However, a minority maintain that sport’s independence from political and social spheres should remain.
Chapter in Football Fandom in Europe and Latin America: Culture, Politics and Violence in the 21st Century by Bernardo Buarque de Hollanda & Thomas Busset , 2023
The Routledge Handbook of Gender Politics in Sport and Physical Activity, 2022
Throughout history, a small number of athletes have used their sporting status to engage in some ... more Throughout history, a small number of athletes have used their sporting status to engage in some form of social and political activism. Although this was often carried out by black male athletes protesting about racial injustice, women have also contributed to political and social activism, albeit with less coverage. In the twenty-first century, this activism has been aided by the introduction of social media, which provides athletes with a personal platform to control how they communicate with the wider public and media. In this chapter, we explore how social media platforms are being used for political and social activism through the case study of American soccer player Megan Rapinoe. The chapter discusses the paradoxes and privileges associated with her identity as a successful white woman actively engaging on social media platforms. It outlines the success of Rapinoe’s activism in propagating messages into the wider public discourse, aided through coverage from the mainstream media. Conversely, it also highlights that while much of her activism has been welcomed and encouraged, a contingent of responses found on her social media platforms contains a backlash, with some personal attacks targeted at her identity as an openly lesbian woman. The chapter concludes by acknowledging how high-profile athletes like Rapinoe are using social media as a space for political and social activism and, in doing so, help contribute towards rendering some form of progressive change in society.
Soccer & Society, 2023
Taking the knee has become an enduring feature of many sports since 2020: it is a powerful social... more Taking the knee has become an enduring feature of many sports since 2020: it is a powerful social and political gesture signalling a resistance against racism, not only in sports but in all forms. The research sampled 1001 sports fans, inviting them to share their beliefs, experiences and perspectives on racism in football. In particular, they were asked whether the knee should remain an expression of the sport's fight against racism. While 34.8% believed it was a worthwhile gesture and should remain, 65.2% opposed its continuance. The reasons are varied but shared a basic assumption: that the gesture has replaced the actual fight against racism. In other words, football has effectively done little to combat racism and instead offers a symbolic ritual of opposition. This finding contrasts with popular understandings of aversion to the knee, which presume it is a racist reaction. The present study concludes it is quite the opposite: fans accept football's disapproval of racism, but question the efficacy of the knee in countering it. "What change has it actually made?' one fan asked rhetorically "'We need action not continuous posturing' demanded another. "A little less conversation." The authors conclude: 1. Fans do not object to the sport they feel belongs to them being used to promote good causes. 2. While objectors to the knee are not motivated by racism, racism still has a residual presence in football. 3. Fans urge football's organizing bodies to clamp down on racism with severe punishments rather than ground closures or fines. 4. Fans see the knee as window dressing, disguising football's failure effectively to challenge racism.
Sport, Social Media, and Digital Technology: Sociological Approaches, 2022
Purpose: This chapter outlines the extent to which the traditional characteristics of masculinity... more Purpose: This chapter outlines the extent to which the traditional characteristics of masculinity in sport-initially played out in sports stadia and the traditional media in the late nineteenth and throughout most of the twentieth century-are now also a feature of social media and digital technology platforms in the twenty-first century. At the outset, this chapter discusses the historical association between masculinity and sporting competition and how this has played an important role in presenting a normative heterosexual identity amongst players, fans, and the traditional media. The chapter then discusses the introduction of social media and digital technology platforms and the impact this history is having in these rapidly consumed spaces, with a particular focus on language, such as hate speech.
Design/methodology/approach: This chapter examines and discusses a myriad of literature from inside and outside of academia that explores masculinity, sport, and/or the internet. These discussions are backgrounded within a historical context and connected to contemporary examples.
Findings: Social media and digital technology platforms have provided opportunities for athletes, the media, and fans, to engage in more of an active debate on masculinity in sport than existed in the twentieth century. However, the chapter also addresses the traditional characteristics of masculinity that remain in the culture of sport and in online environments, especially surrounding hate speech.
Originality/value: This chapter, while engaging in an emerging topic of discussion, offers important recommendations for future research and the ways in which this can be methodologically carried out on the internet on a variety of topic areas surrounding masculinity in sport from a sociological perspective.
Journal of Homosexuality, 2023
In a survey of 3,500 association football fans conducted by members of the research team over a d... more In a survey of 3,500 association football fans conducted by members of the research team over a decade ago, most participants predicted that at least one gay football player would feel comfortable enough to disclose their sexuality publicly by 2014, and that many other players would follow this lead in the following years. Ten years on, gay players can be found in all major sports, but association football remains an outlier. Using an anonymous online survey, we invited football fans to advance their own views on why events have not transpired as expected. A sample of 2663 participants revealed: (a) 95% would welcome openly gay players, meaning by implication, football culture is a more gay-friendly environment than wider society; (b) Participants attributed the continued silence of gay players to football’s gatekeepers e.g., agents, managers, and owners; (c) Paradoxically, homophobic language is used by fans but is not considered malicious.
Sport in Society, 2023
This article examines the responses by users of the social media platform, Twitter, to the Englis... more This article examines the responses by users of the social media platform, Twitter, to the English Premier League's (EPL) support, via four tweets from their official Twitter account, for the annual Rainbow Laces anti-homophobia in football campaign. Locating our analysis within the corporate social responsibility (CSR) agenda of the EPL, the four tweets received a total of 24,997 'likes' , 4,951 retweets, and 1,865 comments. Of those comments directly responding to the campaign and wider CSR agenda of the EPL (n = 407), 236 contained supportive comments and 171 contained negative comments. Despite support for the Rainbow Laces campaign, the comments also reflected some resistance to the overall CSR agenda of the EPL. Here, responses called for a greater focus on issues outside of LGBT+, such as mental health and reducing the financial burden placed on fans to consume football.
Sociology, 2022
This article offers an original contribution as the first to focus empirically on men football fa... more This article offers an original contribution as the first to focus empirically on men football fans' attitudes towards women's sport in a 'new age' of UK media coverage, in which women's sport has experienced a significantly increased and more positive media profile. We draw on online survey responses from 1950 men football fans of different age groups from across the UK. Our methodological approach used techniques emerging out of the principles of grounded theory. We develop a new, threefold , theoretical model, covering men football fans' attitudes to women in the sports nexus and men's performances of masculinities. Our findings show evidence of a change in attitudes towards women in sport, with men performing progressive masculinities. However, there were also signs of a backlash against advances in gender equality, with men performing overtly misogynistic masculinities and covertly misogynistic masculinities.
Sport in Society, 2023
Women's sport, and perhaps especially women's football, in England has enjoyed much greater media... more Women's sport, and perhaps especially women's football, in England has enjoyed much greater media visibility and support over the past decade. But we still know relatively little about the response of fans of men's football to the rise of the women's game and their views on attending it. This paper highlights responses from 2,347 fans of the men's game in Britain to BBC terrestrial coverage of the FIFA Women's World Cup of 2015. It also investigates general views on women's football, experiences of attending matches and the perceived barriers to match attendance. It argues that there remains residual resistance to the women's game, but also increasing reflexivity about its performance and prospects. Concerns over the financial excesses of the men's game and about the values expressed in its elite versions additionally contribute to more positive attitudes and expectations in our sample about the future of elite women's football.
Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 2021
This article explores the views of 906 football fans (96% of whom selfidentified as White), colle... more This article explores the views of 906 football fans (96% of whom selfidentified as White), collected via an online survey from May-June 2019, regarding the impact of the leading equality and inclusion organization, Kick It Out, in delivering initiatives to challenge the multifaceted expressions of racism by some White English football fans. Whilst fans recognize the importance of raising awareness of racial discrimination, nearly three quarters of White fans do not engage with any Kick It Out initiatives. In the face of new challenges, including the largely unregulated space of social media, and a socio-political climate that has facilitated the resurgence of overtly expressed bigoted, colour and cultural-based racisms, the article stresses that the English football authorities must support the work of anti-racism organizations to increase their potency amongst White fans if racial discrimination is to be more effectively challenged in the future.
Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 2022
This article presents the responses of 1,432 male association football fans, collected via an onl... more This article presents the responses of 1,432 male association football fans, collected via an online survey from March 2020 to April 2020, regarding their views on sexuality in women's football in the United Kingdom. The analysis focuses on two broad themes that emerged from the data: (1) the association of women footballers with masculinity and how they subsequently transgress the traditional characteristics of femininity; and (2) a reduced stigma surrounding sexuality in women's football given its lower profile in terms of coverage and the smaller number of fans in comparison to men's football. The article concludes by outlining how there is less homonegativity concerning sexuality in women's football in the United Kingdom, primarily because the heteromasculine position of male fans is not challenged, but fans also reaffirm the stereotypes and myths of nonheterosexual women playing a sport like football.
Communication & Sport, 2022
Rugby union, alongside other collision and contact sports, faces ever mounting pressure from incr... more Rugby union, alongside other collision and contact sports, faces ever mounting pressure from increased recognition of concussive injuries and the risks they present to athletes, both in the short-term and long-term. Here, the media is a central component of increasing pressure for cultural change. This research analysed data from 524 self-selected survey respondents to examine rugby union fans’ and stakeholders’ perceptions of media portrayal of concussion and how it might influence their own perceptions. We found evidence of a complex and heterogenous relationship between perceptions of masculinity, views and attitudes toward mass media, and degree of involvement in rugby union. Specifically, partisans of the sport generally saw mass media as hostile, with coverage biased against rugby, allowing them to manufacture doubt regarding risk information, as well as maintaining involvement in the sport. We conclude that critical commentaries from the media have the ability to challenge masculinities around concussion.
Sport in Society, 2022
This article presents the responses of 4,113 sports fans (55% of whom self-identified as female),... more This article presents the responses of 4,113 sports fans (55% of whom self-identified as female), collected via an online survey from April 2019 to June 2019, about their views on trans women competing in women’s sports. In presenting the data we draw on two recurring themes – gender identity and fairness – to explain the contrasting views surrounding the traditional gendered organization of sports. The overall findings are that just over half of our male and female participants are against the inclusion of trans women, with non-binary participants more supportive and those who preferred not to disclose their gender identity less supportive. The article concludes by suggesting that whilst there is evidence of progressive attitudes amongst our participants, there is also strong resistance to trans women competing in women’s sports that is primarily related to the perceived retention of an unfair biological advantage by being assigned male at birth.
Ethnic and Racial Studies, 2024
This article commentary highlights the pattern of findings from various projects conducted in the... more This article commentary highlights the pattern of findings from various projects conducted in the United Kingdom on football fans and in Australia on football, Australian Rules football, and rugby league fans, regarding the extent of fan racism present in each sport. It is from these projects I argue that toxic Whiteness is present in a White dominant society through a practice that locates the characteristics associated with Whiteness (power, privilege, dominance, supremacy, difference) at the top of the racial hierarchy. Although Whites can consciously or unconsciously express or resist engaging in racist behaviour, I argue that expressions of racism that are meant to cause harm or distress to “Other” individuals or groups are at the core of toxic Whiteness.
Soccer and Society, 2024
Eighty percent of football fans involved in the present study do not want EURO2024 to be deployed... more Eighty percent of football fans involved in the present study do not want EURO2024 to be deployed as a platform for protest against the extensively covered conflicts in Ukraine and Gaza. The majority accept that, as one of 2024’s global sports spectacles, EURO2024, like the Paris Olympics, will be watched by billions and command the attention of the global media. They also understand how sport has catalysed geopolitical change, for example, playing a role in isolating apartheid-era South Africa. Yet a majority believe EURO2024 is a sporting event and, as such, should not be weaponized by social and political events. This commentary is based on a self-contained project involving 1010 fans conducted during April–May 2024, though it continues themes the authors have explored in the recent past, their central question being: has sport been prominently politicized since Colin Kaepernick’s gesture in 2016? Since then, many of the world’s governing organizations have relaxed their traditional positions on political and socio-cultural issues and, in some cases, have approved of athletes taking the knee as a symbol of their commitment to inclusivity. Individual athletes have displayed their values, but fans are not convinced of their sincerity. They also question governing organizations’ genuineness. Many are sceptical enough to believe football’s corporate sponsors are the chief beneficiaries of protest. Fans agree football can be a potent platform on which to mount social and political missions. They just do not want it to happen during EURO2024.
Chapter 32 in Routledge Handbook of Sport, Leisure and Social Justice, 2024
This chapter explores athlete activism, focussing on its expression via national anthem protests ... more This chapter explores athlete activism, focussing on its expression via national anthem protests or expressions of solidarity at sport events. We survey this type of activism and map its evolution. In doing so, we highlight three environments – the US, Australia, and Northern Ireland – as epicentres for anthemic protests and expressions of solidarity. In these varying contexts, we explore the bases for, and effectiveness of, these types of athlete activism.
International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 2024
This article explores spectator racism across three high-profile professional men's football code... more This article explores spectator racism across three high-profile professional men's football codes in Australia (Australian Football League, National Rugby League and the A-League). To pursue this goal, the study conducted an online survey from April 2021 to June 2021, securing 2047 responses. Our focus in this article centres on those participants who self-identified as White to gather their insights on racism as they witnessed and understood it being expressed in the context of attending a professional men's football code match in Australia. Applying Pierre Bourdieu's concept of habitus to theorise why some White spectators overtly express racist language and behaviour, our findings indicated the resilience of Whiteness as a source of power and domination, with many White participants reporting they had witnessed racial bigotry in recent years. Concurrently, many demonstrated anti-racist sensibilities, expressing frustration that change has been limited, if at all. Some participants suggested racism is an individual failing rather than being subject to institutions and community norms. From that perspective, racism is viewed as a personal choice rather than a failure of society.
International Journal of Sport Management and Marketing, 2024
To date, limited research has examined how sports fans feel about the response by sportswear bran... more To date, limited research has examined how sports fans feel about the response by sportswear brands towards athletes who are paid to endorse their brand but also publicly engage in social and political activism. In addressing this shortfall, this article presents the views of 1,001 US sports fans, collected via an online survey from May 2021 to June 2021. Locating the findings within two prominent themes-social responsibility strategy and financial motives-two-thirds (66%) of the participants felt that sportswear brands had become more supportive of athletes publicly engaging in social and political activism, whilst one-third (34%) felt that little had changed from what athletes faced in previous generations. The article concludes by outlining that as athlete activism becomes more prominent in the US, both inside sports arenas and on social media platforms, the social responsibility strategy of sportswear brands will become an even more important feature in the consumer culture of US sports fans.
Social Media in Sport: Evidence-Based Perspectives, 2023
This chapter presents the views of 1,001 United States (US) sports fans, collected via an online ... more This chapter presents the views of 1,001 United States (US) sports fans, collected via an online survey from May 2021 to June 2021, towards the increasing presence of US-based athlete activism inside sports arenas and communicated via social media platforms like Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram. Two-thirds (65%) supported an athlete's right to use their high-profile position to draw attention to a social or political issue or cause, whilst one-third (35%) did not support such actions. The chapter concludes by outlining that as various forms of social and political activism are being used by a growing number of prominent US-based athletes, sports fans are increasingly having to assess the impact this has on their experience of following particular athletes and teams in the US.
Soccer & Society, 2024
Using data from a 2020 survey of 2,663 football fans, this paper explores their perspectives on L... more Using data from a 2020 survey of 2,663 football fans, this paper explores
their perspectives on LGBTQ+ language at UK men's football matches.
Results revealed that 95 percent of participants expressed their support
for LGBTQ+ players, challenging the assumption that football fans are
homophobic. Paradoxically, 78 percent acknowledged encountering language with LGBTQ+ themes when attending stadiums but interpret this in contrasting ways: 41 percent as homophobic and 37 percent as playful,
humorous ‘banter’, acknowledging the fine line between humor and
offense. Additionally, 22 percent reported not hearing any such language.
In this paper, we attempt to make sense of the inconsistency between the
presence of seemingly liberal attitudes and the partial acceptance of
illiberal banter from this sample. To reconcile this paradoxical position,
we find utility in the work of Pierre Bourdieu and his theory of practice,
with particular emphasis on the aspect of social transformation.
Sport in Society, 2023
Since 2020, the politics of sport have been transformed: traditional assumptions about the role ... more Since 2020, the politics of sport have been transformed: traditional
assumptions about the role of sport in exercising its power and exerting
its influence in areas once regarded as taboo have changed. This commentary paper is based on qualitative responses drawn from an online sample of 1067 participants, who were invited to share their perspectives on a variety of issues regarding the politics of sport. It documents the end of the separation of sport and politics and explores how fans respond to sport’s new involvement in social and moral affairs, such as racism and other forms of inequality. The majority of fans understand that sport offers an effective platform and think it should use its capacity to influence change. However, a minority maintain that sport’s independence from political and social spheres should remain.
Chapter in Football Fandom in Europe and Latin America: Culture, Politics and Violence in the 21st Century by Bernardo Buarque de Hollanda & Thomas Busset , 2023
The Routledge Handbook of Gender Politics in Sport and Physical Activity, 2022
Throughout history, a small number of athletes have used their sporting status to engage in some ... more Throughout history, a small number of athletes have used their sporting status to engage in some form of social and political activism. Although this was often carried out by black male athletes protesting about racial injustice, women have also contributed to political and social activism, albeit with less coverage. In the twenty-first century, this activism has been aided by the introduction of social media, which provides athletes with a personal platform to control how they communicate with the wider public and media. In this chapter, we explore how social media platforms are being used for political and social activism through the case study of American soccer player Megan Rapinoe. The chapter discusses the paradoxes and privileges associated with her identity as a successful white woman actively engaging on social media platforms. It outlines the success of Rapinoe’s activism in propagating messages into the wider public discourse, aided through coverage from the mainstream media. Conversely, it also highlights that while much of her activism has been welcomed and encouraged, a contingent of responses found on her social media platforms contains a backlash, with some personal attacks targeted at her identity as an openly lesbian woman. The chapter concludes by acknowledging how high-profile athletes like Rapinoe are using social media as a space for political and social activism and, in doing so, help contribute towards rendering some form of progressive change in society.
Soccer & Society, 2023
Taking the knee has become an enduring feature of many sports since 2020: it is a powerful social... more Taking the knee has become an enduring feature of many sports since 2020: it is a powerful social and political gesture signalling a resistance against racism, not only in sports but in all forms. The research sampled 1001 sports fans, inviting them to share their beliefs, experiences and perspectives on racism in football. In particular, they were asked whether the knee should remain an expression of the sport's fight against racism. While 34.8% believed it was a worthwhile gesture and should remain, 65.2% opposed its continuance. The reasons are varied but shared a basic assumption: that the gesture has replaced the actual fight against racism. In other words, football has effectively done little to combat racism and instead offers a symbolic ritual of opposition. This finding contrasts with popular understandings of aversion to the knee, which presume it is a racist reaction. The present study concludes it is quite the opposite: fans accept football's disapproval of racism, but question the efficacy of the knee in countering it. "What change has it actually made?' one fan asked rhetorically "'We need action not continuous posturing' demanded another. "A little less conversation." The authors conclude: 1. Fans do not object to the sport they feel belongs to them being used to promote good causes. 2. While objectors to the knee are not motivated by racism, racism still has a residual presence in football. 3. Fans urge football's organizing bodies to clamp down on racism with severe punishments rather than ground closures or fines. 4. Fans see the knee as window dressing, disguising football's failure effectively to challenge racism.
Sport, Social Media, and Digital Technology: Sociological Approaches, 2022
Purpose: This chapter outlines the extent to which the traditional characteristics of masculinity... more Purpose: This chapter outlines the extent to which the traditional characteristics of masculinity in sport-initially played out in sports stadia and the traditional media in the late nineteenth and throughout most of the twentieth century-are now also a feature of social media and digital technology platforms in the twenty-first century. At the outset, this chapter discusses the historical association between masculinity and sporting competition and how this has played an important role in presenting a normative heterosexual identity amongst players, fans, and the traditional media. The chapter then discusses the introduction of social media and digital technology platforms and the impact this history is having in these rapidly consumed spaces, with a particular focus on language, such as hate speech.
Design/methodology/approach: This chapter examines and discusses a myriad of literature from inside and outside of academia that explores masculinity, sport, and/or the internet. These discussions are backgrounded within a historical context and connected to contemporary examples.
Findings: Social media and digital technology platforms have provided opportunities for athletes, the media, and fans, to engage in more of an active debate on masculinity in sport than existed in the twentieth century. However, the chapter also addresses the traditional characteristics of masculinity that remain in the culture of sport and in online environments, especially surrounding hate speech.
Originality/value: This chapter, while engaging in an emerging topic of discussion, offers important recommendations for future research and the ways in which this can be methodologically carried out on the internet on a variety of topic areas surrounding masculinity in sport from a sociological perspective.
Journal of Homosexuality, 2023
In a survey of 3,500 association football fans conducted by members of the research team over a d... more In a survey of 3,500 association football fans conducted by members of the research team over a decade ago, most participants predicted that at least one gay football player would feel comfortable enough to disclose their sexuality publicly by 2014, and that many other players would follow this lead in the following years. Ten years on, gay players can be found in all major sports, but association football remains an outlier. Using an anonymous online survey, we invited football fans to advance their own views on why events have not transpired as expected. A sample of 2663 participants revealed: (a) 95% would welcome openly gay players, meaning by implication, football culture is a more gay-friendly environment than wider society; (b) Participants attributed the continued silence of gay players to football’s gatekeepers e.g., agents, managers, and owners; (c) Paradoxically, homophobic language is used by fans but is not considered malicious.
Sport in Society, 2023
This article examines the responses by users of the social media platform, Twitter, to the Englis... more This article examines the responses by users of the social media platform, Twitter, to the English Premier League's (EPL) support, via four tweets from their official Twitter account, for the annual Rainbow Laces anti-homophobia in football campaign. Locating our analysis within the corporate social responsibility (CSR) agenda of the EPL, the four tweets received a total of 24,997 'likes' , 4,951 retweets, and 1,865 comments. Of those comments directly responding to the campaign and wider CSR agenda of the EPL (n = 407), 236 contained supportive comments and 171 contained negative comments. Despite support for the Rainbow Laces campaign, the comments also reflected some resistance to the overall CSR agenda of the EPL. Here, responses called for a greater focus on issues outside of LGBT+, such as mental health and reducing the financial burden placed on fans to consume football.
Sociology, 2022
This article offers an original contribution as the first to focus empirically on men football fa... more This article offers an original contribution as the first to focus empirically on men football fans' attitudes towards women's sport in a 'new age' of UK media coverage, in which women's sport has experienced a significantly increased and more positive media profile. We draw on online survey responses from 1950 men football fans of different age groups from across the UK. Our methodological approach used techniques emerging out of the principles of grounded theory. We develop a new, threefold , theoretical model, covering men football fans' attitudes to women in the sports nexus and men's performances of masculinities. Our findings show evidence of a change in attitudes towards women in sport, with men performing progressive masculinities. However, there were also signs of a backlash against advances in gender equality, with men performing overtly misogynistic masculinities and covertly misogynistic masculinities.
Sport in Society, 2023
Women's sport, and perhaps especially women's football, in England has enjoyed much greater media... more Women's sport, and perhaps especially women's football, in England has enjoyed much greater media visibility and support over the past decade. But we still know relatively little about the response of fans of men's football to the rise of the women's game and their views on attending it. This paper highlights responses from 2,347 fans of the men's game in Britain to BBC terrestrial coverage of the FIFA Women's World Cup of 2015. It also investigates general views on women's football, experiences of attending matches and the perceived barriers to match attendance. It argues that there remains residual resistance to the women's game, but also increasing reflexivity about its performance and prospects. Concerns over the financial excesses of the men's game and about the values expressed in its elite versions additionally contribute to more positive attitudes and expectations in our sample about the future of elite women's football.
Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 2021
This article explores the views of 906 football fans (96% of whom selfidentified as White), colle... more This article explores the views of 906 football fans (96% of whom selfidentified as White), collected via an online survey from May-June 2019, regarding the impact of the leading equality and inclusion organization, Kick It Out, in delivering initiatives to challenge the multifaceted expressions of racism by some White English football fans. Whilst fans recognize the importance of raising awareness of racial discrimination, nearly three quarters of White fans do not engage with any Kick It Out initiatives. In the face of new challenges, including the largely unregulated space of social media, and a socio-political climate that has facilitated the resurgence of overtly expressed bigoted, colour and cultural-based racisms, the article stresses that the English football authorities must support the work of anti-racism organizations to increase their potency amongst White fans if racial discrimination is to be more effectively challenged in the future.
Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 2022
This article presents the responses of 1,432 male association football fans, collected via an onl... more This article presents the responses of 1,432 male association football fans, collected via an online survey from March 2020 to April 2020, regarding their views on sexuality in women's football in the United Kingdom. The analysis focuses on two broad themes that emerged from the data: (1) the association of women footballers with masculinity and how they subsequently transgress the traditional characteristics of femininity; and (2) a reduced stigma surrounding sexuality in women's football given its lower profile in terms of coverage and the smaller number of fans in comparison to men's football. The article concludes by outlining how there is less homonegativity concerning sexuality in women's football in the United Kingdom, primarily because the heteromasculine position of male fans is not challenged, but fans also reaffirm the stereotypes and myths of nonheterosexual women playing a sport like football.
Communication & Sport, 2022
Rugby union, alongside other collision and contact sports, faces ever mounting pressure from incr... more Rugby union, alongside other collision and contact sports, faces ever mounting pressure from increased recognition of concussive injuries and the risks they present to athletes, both in the short-term and long-term. Here, the media is a central component of increasing pressure for cultural change. This research analysed data from 524 self-selected survey respondents to examine rugby union fans’ and stakeholders’ perceptions of media portrayal of concussion and how it might influence their own perceptions. We found evidence of a complex and heterogenous relationship between perceptions of masculinity, views and attitudes toward mass media, and degree of involvement in rugby union. Specifically, partisans of the sport generally saw mass media as hostile, with coverage biased against rugby, allowing them to manufacture doubt regarding risk information, as well as maintaining involvement in the sport. We conclude that critical commentaries from the media have the ability to challenge masculinities around concussion.
Sport in Society, 2022
This article presents the responses of 4,113 sports fans (55% of whom self-identified as female),... more This article presents the responses of 4,113 sports fans (55% of whom self-identified as female), collected via an online survey from April 2019 to June 2019, about their views on trans women competing in women’s sports. In presenting the data we draw on two recurring themes – gender identity and fairness – to explain the contrasting views surrounding the traditional gendered organization of sports. The overall findings are that just over half of our male and female participants are against the inclusion of trans women, with non-binary participants more supportive and those who preferred not to disclose their gender identity less supportive. The article concludes by suggesting that whilst there is evidence of progressive attitudes amongst our participants, there is also strong resistance to trans women competing in women’s sports that is primarily related to the perceived retention of an unfair biological advantage by being assigned male at birth.
Published in the International Review of the Sociology of Sport, Jun 2013
Published in Ethnic and Racial Studies , May 2012
Routledge, 2020
This book explores issues related to the abuse of referees and match officials in sport. Drawing ... more This book explores issues related to the abuse of referees and match officials in sport. Drawing on original empirical research in football, rugby union, rugby league and cricket, it provides an insight into the complexities involved in the recruitment, retention and development processes of match officials from across the global sports industry.
Using an evidence-based approach, the book examines why abuse occurs, the operational environments in which match officials operate, and underlying issues and trends that cut across sports and therefore can be linked to wider societal trends. It challenges global sport policy and discusses the development of an inclusive, cohesive and facilitative environment for match officials, players, coaches and spectators to ensure the future provision of global sport.
Referees, Match Officials and Abuse is an invaluable resource for all students, scholars and national governing bodies of sport with an interest in match officials, sports governance, sport policy, sport management and the sociology of sport.
Routledge, 2019
The internet and digital technologies have transformed sport and the way that we research sport, ... more The internet and digital technologies have transformed sport and the way that we research sport, opening up new ways to analyse sport organisations, fan communities, networks, athletes, the media, and other key stakeholders in the field. This engaging and innovative book offers a complete introduction to online research methods in sport studies, guiding the reader through the entire research process, and bringing that process to life with sport-related cases and examples.
Covering both qualitative and quantitative methods, the book introduces key topics such as generating a research idea, implementing the research design, maintaining good ethical standards, and collecting, analysing and presenting data. It explains how to conduct online surveys, online interviews, and online ethnography in practice, and every chapter contains individual and group activities to encourage the reader to engage with real online research, as well as further reading suggestions to help them develop their knowledge.
Online Research Methods in Sport Studies is essential reading for undergraduate and postgraduate students, academics, and researchers with an interest in sport studies, and is a useful reference for practitioners working in sport or sport media who want to improve their professional research skills.
Palgrave Macmillan, 2019
Over the past two decades there has been a rapid transformation of masculinities in the West, lar... more Over the past two decades there has been a rapid transformation of masculinities in the West, largely facilitated by a decline in cultural homophobia. The significant changes in the expression of masculinity, particularly among younger generations of men, have been particularly evident in men’s team sports, which have become an increasingly diverse and inclusive culture. Drawing upon work from a wide range of established and emerging international scholars, this handbook provides a comprehensive and interdisciplinary analysis of the contemporary relationship between masculinity and sport. It covers a range of areas including history, media, gender, sexuality, race, violence, and fandom, considering how they impact a range of different sports across the world. Students and scholars across many disciplines will find the unparalleled overview provided by these specially commissioned chapters an invaluable resource
This book draws upon a relational sociological paradigm to explore the processes of collective ac... more This book draws upon a relational sociological paradigm to explore the processes of collective action in football fandom across Europe and the UK. Through a range of case studies, the authors address pertinent themes in football fandom, including anti-discrimination, ‘home,’ ticketing, name changes, ‘ownership,’ and broader leftist politics. Each of these case studies engages with the theoretical framework of cultural relational sociology, highlighting the different social and cultural changes English and European football has undergone, often over a very short period of time
Palgrave Macmillan, 2018
Screens have been with us since the eighteenth century, though we became accustomed to staring at... more Screens have been with us since the eighteenth century, though we became accustomed to staring at them only after the appearance of film and television in the twentieth century. But there was nothing in film or TV that prepared us for the revolution wrought by the combination of screens and the internet. Society has been transformed and this book asks how and with what consequences?
Screen Society’s conclusions are based on an original research project conducted by scholars in the UK and Australia. The researchers designed their own research platform and elicited the thoughts and opinions of over 2000 participants, to draw together insights of today’s society as seen by users of smartphones, tablets and computers – what the authors call Screenagers. The book issues challenges to accepted wisdom on many of the so-called problems associated with our persistent use of screen devices, including screen addiction, trolling, gaming and gambling.
Association football is now the global sport, consumed in various ways by millions of people acro... more Association football is now the global sport, consumed in various ways by millions of people across the world. Throughout its history, football has been a catalyst as much for social cohesion, unity, excitement and integration as it can be for division, exclusion and discrimination. A Sociology of Football in a Global Context examines the historical, political, economic, social and cultural complexities of the game across Europe, Africa, Asia and North and South America. It analyses the key developments and sociological debates within football through a topic-based approach that concentrates on the history of football and its global diffusion; the role of violence; the global governance of the game by FIFA; race, racism and whiteness; gender and homophobia; the changing nature of fans; the media and football’s financial revolution; the transformation of players into global celebrities; and the growth of football leagues across the world. Using a range of examples from all over the world, each chapter highlights the different social and cultural changes football has seen, most notably since the 1990s, when its relationship with the mass media and other transnational networks became more important and financially lucrative.
Association football is the richest, most popular sport in history with a multicultural global fo... more Association football is the richest, most popular sport in history with a multicultural global following encompassing all religions. It is also riven with corruption, racism, homophobia and a violence that has for decades resisted all attempts to tame it. It is this Janus-faced quality that makes football so thrilling. Countless books have focused on the visibly glamorous, wholesome and admirable aspects of the sport. Cashmore and Cleland, by contrast, examine the unpleasant, sleazy and downright nasty aspects – football's dark side. Their approach is not to pontificate or judge, but to express the views of thousands of football fans on the game they love, but which they know has an unpleasant underside. Using their innovative topfan.co.uk research platform, Cashmore and Cleland have interviewed thousands of fans to present a matchless account of football from a new perspective. This is how fans view football's dark side.