Linda Chow | Universidad Nacional Agraria (original) (raw)

Papers by Linda Chow

Journal of Applied Physics, 2005

We propose a technique to measure the opening time for micromachined switches and present substan... more We propose a technique to measure the opening time for micromachined switches and present substantial experimental data for switches with gold-gold contacts. The data demonstrate that contact opening time increases dramatically as apparent contact area increases or as pull-apart force or contact resistance decreases. A model of opening time is also presented with model parameters that fit the experimental data. Moreover, we show that transient mechanical vibrations can play an important role in reducing switch opening time.

RF MEMS direct-contact switches exhibit many advantages over the conventional semiconductor switc... more RF MEMS direct-contact switches exhibit many advantages over the conventional semiconductor switches; however, existing drawbacks such as low power handling, high pull-in voltage and long switch opening time are most critical. This paper presents an optimization design for an RF-MEMS cantilever direct-contact switch to achieve maximum power handling capability, minimum pull-in voltage and switch opening time simultaneously. A 2-step optimization technique is proposed to achieve the optimal design to allow for a power handling capability of 130 mW, a pull-in voltage of 52 V, and a switch opening time 4.4 μs presented. The optimization results show that substantial room exists for improving the current designs of RF MEMS direct-contact switches.

Contact-type RF MEMS switches have demonstrated low onstate resistmce, high off-state impedance, ... more Contact-type RF MEMS switches have demonstrated low onstate resistmce, high off-state impedance, and very large bandwidth; however, their power handling capability is low due to failure caused by contact heating. This paper examines contact heating by measuring V-I curves for contacts in gold switches. Multiphysics modeling allows extraction of contact temperature. Contacts are found to soften and self-anneal at a temperature of about IOOT, corresponding to a contact voltage of about 80 mV. Larger contact force induces a larger decrease in contact resistance during softening, suppressing contact heating. The data provide a better understanding of micro-scale contact physics, leading to design for switches for improved power-handling capability.

IEEE Electron Device Letters, 2007

Direct contact RF microelectromechanical systems switches have demonstrated excellent ultrawideba... more Direct contact RF microelectromechanical systems switches have demonstrated excellent ultrawideband performance from dc to 100 GHz. However, they are prone to failures due to contact adhesion and arcing, particularly for pure-gold/pure-gold contacts. In this letter, we present a new contact design employing ball grid array (BGA) dimples that limit the effective contact area to a few tens of nanometers in diameter. We experimentally show the performance of the BGA dimple with pure-gold/pure-gold contacts and demonstrate RF power handling greater than 1 W during hot switching in excess of 100 million cycles.

We demonstrate softening of the gold-to-gold contact in surface micromachined microelectromechani... more We demonstrate softening of the gold-to-gold contact in surface micromachined microelectromechanical switches under electrostatic force near 30 N, which results from the heating of contact asperities sustaining electron transport. A bias potential that causes the switch contacts to soften is measured for initial contact resistance varying between 0.5 and 300 ⍀. The asperity sizes in this range are comparable to the electron mean-free path at room temperature. We show that contact spots smaller than the mean-free path require larger bias for softening. Our results can be explained using a model accounting for ballistic electron transport in the contact.

IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, 2009

This paper presents the robust design optimization of an RF-MEMS direct contact cantilever switch... more This paper presents the robust design optimization of an RF-MEMS direct contact cantilever switch for minimum actuation voltage and opening time, and maximum power handling capability. The design variables are the length and thickness of the entire cantilever, the widths of the sections of the cantilever, and the dimple size. The actuation voltage is obtained using a 3-D structural-electrostatic finite-element method (FEM) model, and the opening time is obtained using the same FEM model and the experimental model of adhesion at the contact surfaces developed in our previous work. The model accounts for an unpredictable variance in the contact resistance resulting from the micromachining process for the estimation of the power handling. This is achieved by taking the ratio of the root mean square power of the RF current ("signal") passing through the switch to the contact temperature ("noise") resulting from the possible range of the contact resistance. The resulting robust optimization problem is solved using a Strength Pareto Evolutionary Algorithm, to obtain design alternatives exhibiting different tradeoffs among the three objectives. The results show that there exists substantial room for improved designs of RF-MEMS direct-contact switches. It also provides a better understanding of the key factors contributing to the performances of RF-MEMS switches. Most importantly, it provides guidance for further improvements of RF-MEMS switches that exploit complex multiphysics phenomena.

RF MEMS switches have been presented by several researchers for use in transmit/receive switch ci... more RF MEMS switches have been presented by several researchers for use in transmit/receive switch circuits, tunable filters, and beam steering of antenna arrays [I], [ 2 ] . The ben,efits of RF MEMS switches are their low on-impedance, high off-impedance, highly, linear behavior, and, in many cases, nearly zero power consumption [3]. Drawbacks of RF MEMS switches include slow switching, high actuation voltage, high packaging cost, and low power handling capability [3]. Of these challenges, there appears to be substantial room to improve power handling without sacrificing device performance. Hence, this paper focuses on developing models predicting the power handling capability of a switch and corroborating these models with experiments. In particular, our model incorporates a new finite element-boundary integral method to solve for the electromagnetic field:$.

IEEE/ASME Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems, 2005

This paper explores contact heating in microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) switches with contac... more This paper explores contact heating in microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) switches with contact spot sizes less than 100 nm in diameter. Experiments are conducted to demonstrate that contact heating causes a drop in contact resistance. However, existing theory is shown to over-predict heating for MEMS switch contacts because it does not consider ballistic transport of electrons in the contact. Therefore, we extend the theory and develop a predictive model that shows excellent agreement with the experimental results. It is also observed that mechanical cycling causes an increase in contact resistance. We identify this effect as related to the build-up of an insulating film and demonstrate operational conditions to prevent an increase in contact resistance. The improved understanding of contact behavior gained through our modeling and experiments allows switch performance to be improved.

Applied Physics Letters, 2006

Previous studies of electron transport within direct contact microelectromechanical switches have... more Previous studies of electron transport within direct contact microelectromechanical switches have found that conduction occurs via nanoscale contact asperities. It has been claimed that reduced contact resistance can be achieved by using multiple contact switches; however, the ability of these switches to enhance power handling or lifetime remains a question. To study the contact mechanism, single-input-multiple-output switches with ball-shaped dimples were specially designed and tested. At all voltage levels of hot-switching operation, uneven current sharing among the outputs was observed. Furthermore, at softening voltage, an irreversible multiple to single conduction transition occurs and is found to alternate among different outputs.

IEEE Electron Device Letters, 2007

Direct contact RF microelectromechanical systems switches have demonstrated excellent ultrawideba... more Direct contact RF microelectromechanical systems switches have demonstrated excellent ultrawideband performance from dc to 100 GHz. However, they are prone to failures due to contact adhesion and arcing, particularly for pure-gold/pure-gold contacts. In this letter, we present a new contact design employing ball grid array (BGA) dimples that limit the effective contact area to a few tens of nanometers in diameter. We experimentally show the performance of the BGA dimple with pure-gold/pure-gold contacts and demonstrate RF power handling greater than 1 W during hot switching in excess of 100 million cycles.

Applied Physics Letters, 2005

We demonstrate softening of the gold-to-gold contact in surface micromachined microelectromechani... more We demonstrate softening of the gold-to-gold contact in surface micromachined microelectromechanical switches under electrostatic force near 30 μN, which results from the heating of contact asperities sustaining electron transport. A bias potential that causes the switch contacts to soften is measured for initial contact resistance varying between 0.5 and 300 Ω. The asperity sizes in this range are comparable to the electron mean-free path at room temperature. We show that contact spots smaller than the mean-free path require larger bias for softening. Our results can be explained using a model accounting for ballistic electron transport in the contact.

IEEE/ASME Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems, 2006

Air-suspension of transmission-line structures using microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) techno... more Air-suspension of transmission-line structures using microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) technology provides the effective means to suppress substrate losses for radio-frequency (RF) signals. However, heating of these lines augmented by skin effects can be a major concern for RF MEMS reliability. To understand this phenomenon, a thermal energy transport model is developed in a simple analytical form. The model accounts for skin effects that cause Joule heating to be localized near the surface of the RF transmission line. Here, the model is validated through experimental data by measuring the temperature rise in an air-suspended MEMS coplanar waveguide (CPW). For this measurement, a new experimental methodology is also developed allowing direct current (dc) electrical resistance thermometry to be adopted in an RF setup. The modeling and experimental work presented in this paper allow us to provide design rules for preventing thermal and structural failures unique to the RF operation of suspended MEMS transmission-line components. For example, increasing the thickness from 1 to 3 m for a typical transmission line design enhances power handling from 5 to 125 W at 20 GHz, 3.3 to 80 W at 50 GHz, and 2.3 to 56 W at 100 GHz (a 25-fold increase in RF power handling).

Journal of Micromechanics and Microengineering, 2006

We propose an extended finite element-boundary integral method (EFE-BI) to model the electromagne... more We propose an extended finite element-boundary integral method (EFE-BI) to model the electromagnetic (EM) behavior of RF-MEMS switches over a wide frequency range from UHF to terahertz. Our new method integrates EM with finite element heat transfer analysis to extract heat dissipation on the micrometer-scale switch beam due to the non-uniform radio frequency (RF) current distribution. The developed EFE-BI technique is an extension of the standard finite element-boundary integral (FE-BI) method to allow for accurate characterization of RF-MEMS structures whose entire size is a small fraction of a wavelength (λ/250 or less) and may contain dimensions in the order of λ/50 000 or less. Our model predictions exhibit good agreement with experimental results obtained independent of the current study.

The implementation of direct contact RF MEMS switches is challenging owing to their unstable cont... more The implementation of direct contact RF MEMS switches is challenging owing to their unstable contact resistance and low power handling/delivery. This paper carefully studies RF MEMS switch contact behavior and proposes a new method to suppress its instability leading to device failure. Our study supports the hypothesis that MEMS contact switches fail primarily due to contact necking. Using the proposed method, we demonstrate the ability to keep MEMS switch contact resistance under ~0.05 ! in high-cycle cold-switching while a high contact current of >0.9 A is handled/delivered. 978-1-4244-5763-2/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE

Previous studies of electron transport within direct contact microelectromechanical switches have... more Previous studies of electron transport within direct contact microelectromechanical switches have found that conduction occurs via nanoscale contact asperities. It has been claimed that reduced contact resistance can be achieved by using multiple contact switches; however, the ability of these switches to enhance power handling or lifetime remains a question. To study the contact mechanism, single-input-multiple-output switches with ball-shaped dimples were specially designed and tested. At all voltage levels of hot-switching operation, uneven current sharing among the outputs was observed. Furthermore, at softening voltage, an irreversible multiple to single conduction transition occurs and is found to alternate among different outputs.

This paper presents experimental data together with 2 modeling approaches to demonstrate the incr... more This paper presents experimental data together with 2 modeling approaches to demonstrate the increased heating of MEMS suspended structures at radio frequencies due to skin effects. Distinguishable average temperature rises are measured at 2, 13.5, and 18 GHz in a 616 μm × 20 μm × 2.7 μm suspended coplanar waveguide using 4-wire measurement configuration. Our measurements compare well with: (1) previous electromagnetic simulations and (2) a newly introduced analytical thermal model incorporating only skin effects. Buckling and plastic yielding have been observed during and after measurement. This study provides a simple and quantitative approach for the design of suspended structures such as low loss transmission lines, filters and switches with high power handling capability.

We propose a technique to measure the opening time for micromachined switches and present substan... more We propose a technique to measure the opening time for micromachined switches and present substantial experimental data for switches with gold-gold contacts. The data demonstrate that contact opening time increases dramatically as apparent contact area increases or as pull-apart force or contact resistance decreases. A model of opening time is also presented with model parameters that fit the experimental data. Moreover, we show that transient mechanical vibrations can play an important role in reducing switch opening time.

We have experimentally observed the failure of metal contact RF MEMS switches due to a rapid rise... more We have experimentally observed the failure of metal contact RF MEMS switches due to a rapid rise in contact resistance during switching. We were able to repair the failed switches through heating the contact asperities by applying sufficient contact voltage. The data suggest the hypothesis that increasing contact resistance is caused by strain hardening of the contact surface. With this understanding, appropriate corrective measures can be taken to overcome failure, and suggestions for doing so are given in the paper.

Journal of Applied Physics, 2005

We propose a technique to measure the opening time for micromachined switches and present substan... more We propose a technique to measure the opening time for micromachined switches and present substantial experimental data for switches with gold-gold contacts. The data demonstrate that contact opening time increases dramatically as apparent contact area increases or as pull-apart force or contact resistance decreases. A model of opening time is also presented with model parameters that fit the experimental data. Moreover, we show that transient mechanical vibrations can play an important role in reducing switch opening time.

RF MEMS direct-contact switches exhibit many advantages over the conventional semiconductor switc... more RF MEMS direct-contact switches exhibit many advantages over the conventional semiconductor switches; however, existing drawbacks such as low power handling, high pull-in voltage and long switch opening time are most critical. This paper presents an optimization design for an RF-MEMS cantilever direct-contact switch to achieve maximum power handling capability, minimum pull-in voltage and switch opening time simultaneously. A 2-step optimization technique is proposed to achieve the optimal design to allow for a power handling capability of 130 mW, a pull-in voltage of 52 V, and a switch opening time 4.4 μs presented. The optimization results show that substantial room exists for improving the current designs of RF MEMS direct-contact switches.

Contact-type RF MEMS switches have demonstrated low onstate resistmce, high off-state impedance, ... more Contact-type RF MEMS switches have demonstrated low onstate resistmce, high off-state impedance, and very large bandwidth; however, their power handling capability is low due to failure caused by contact heating. This paper examines contact heating by measuring V-I curves for contacts in gold switches. Multiphysics modeling allows extraction of contact temperature. Contacts are found to soften and self-anneal at a temperature of about IOOT, corresponding to a contact voltage of about 80 mV. Larger contact force induces a larger decrease in contact resistance during softening, suppressing contact heating. The data provide a better understanding of micro-scale contact physics, leading to design for switches for improved power-handling capability.

IEEE Electron Device Letters, 2007

Direct contact RF microelectromechanical systems switches have demonstrated excellent ultrawideba... more Direct contact RF microelectromechanical systems switches have demonstrated excellent ultrawideband performance from dc to 100 GHz. However, they are prone to failures due to contact adhesion and arcing, particularly for pure-gold/pure-gold contacts. In this letter, we present a new contact design employing ball grid array (BGA) dimples that limit the effective contact area to a few tens of nanometers in diameter. We experimentally show the performance of the BGA dimple with pure-gold/pure-gold contacts and demonstrate RF power handling greater than 1 W during hot switching in excess of 100 million cycles.

We demonstrate softening of the gold-to-gold contact in surface micromachined microelectromechani... more We demonstrate softening of the gold-to-gold contact in surface micromachined microelectromechanical switches under electrostatic force near 30 N, which results from the heating of contact asperities sustaining electron transport. A bias potential that causes the switch contacts to soften is measured for initial contact resistance varying between 0.5 and 300 ⍀. The asperity sizes in this range are comparable to the electron mean-free path at room temperature. We show that contact spots smaller than the mean-free path require larger bias for softening. Our results can be explained using a model accounting for ballistic electron transport in the contact.

IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, 2009

This paper presents the robust design optimization of an RF-MEMS direct contact cantilever switch... more This paper presents the robust design optimization of an RF-MEMS direct contact cantilever switch for minimum actuation voltage and opening time, and maximum power handling capability. The design variables are the length and thickness of the entire cantilever, the widths of the sections of the cantilever, and the dimple size. The actuation voltage is obtained using a 3-D structural-electrostatic finite-element method (FEM) model, and the opening time is obtained using the same FEM model and the experimental model of adhesion at the contact surfaces developed in our previous work. The model accounts for an unpredictable variance in the contact resistance resulting from the micromachining process for the estimation of the power handling. This is achieved by taking the ratio of the root mean square power of the RF current ("signal") passing through the switch to the contact temperature ("noise") resulting from the possible range of the contact resistance. The resulting robust optimization problem is solved using a Strength Pareto Evolutionary Algorithm, to obtain design alternatives exhibiting different tradeoffs among the three objectives. The results show that there exists substantial room for improved designs of RF-MEMS direct-contact switches. It also provides a better understanding of the key factors contributing to the performances of RF-MEMS switches. Most importantly, it provides guidance for further improvements of RF-MEMS switches that exploit complex multiphysics phenomena.

RF MEMS switches have been presented by several researchers for use in transmit/receive switch ci... more RF MEMS switches have been presented by several researchers for use in transmit/receive switch circuits, tunable filters, and beam steering of antenna arrays [I], [ 2 ] . The ben,efits of RF MEMS switches are their low on-impedance, high off-impedance, highly, linear behavior, and, in many cases, nearly zero power consumption [3]. Drawbacks of RF MEMS switches include slow switching, high actuation voltage, high packaging cost, and low power handling capability [3]. Of these challenges, there appears to be substantial room to improve power handling without sacrificing device performance. Hence, this paper focuses on developing models predicting the power handling capability of a switch and corroborating these models with experiments. In particular, our model incorporates a new finite element-boundary integral method to solve for the electromagnetic field:$.

IEEE/ASME Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems, 2005

This paper explores contact heating in microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) switches with contac... more This paper explores contact heating in microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) switches with contact spot sizes less than 100 nm in diameter. Experiments are conducted to demonstrate that contact heating causes a drop in contact resistance. However, existing theory is shown to over-predict heating for MEMS switch contacts because it does not consider ballistic transport of electrons in the contact. Therefore, we extend the theory and develop a predictive model that shows excellent agreement with the experimental results. It is also observed that mechanical cycling causes an increase in contact resistance. We identify this effect as related to the build-up of an insulating film and demonstrate operational conditions to prevent an increase in contact resistance. The improved understanding of contact behavior gained through our modeling and experiments allows switch performance to be improved.

Applied Physics Letters, 2006

Previous studies of electron transport within direct contact microelectromechanical switches have... more Previous studies of electron transport within direct contact microelectromechanical switches have found that conduction occurs via nanoscale contact asperities. It has been claimed that reduced contact resistance can be achieved by using multiple contact switches; however, the ability of these switches to enhance power handling or lifetime remains a question. To study the contact mechanism, single-input-multiple-output switches with ball-shaped dimples were specially designed and tested. At all voltage levels of hot-switching operation, uneven current sharing among the outputs was observed. Furthermore, at softening voltage, an irreversible multiple to single conduction transition occurs and is found to alternate among different outputs.

IEEE Electron Device Letters, 2007

Direct contact RF microelectromechanical systems switches have demonstrated excellent ultrawideba... more Direct contact RF microelectromechanical systems switches have demonstrated excellent ultrawideband performance from dc to 100 GHz. However, they are prone to failures due to contact adhesion and arcing, particularly for pure-gold/pure-gold contacts. In this letter, we present a new contact design employing ball grid array (BGA) dimples that limit the effective contact area to a few tens of nanometers in diameter. We experimentally show the performance of the BGA dimple with pure-gold/pure-gold contacts and demonstrate RF power handling greater than 1 W during hot switching in excess of 100 million cycles.

Applied Physics Letters, 2005

We demonstrate softening of the gold-to-gold contact in surface micromachined microelectromechani... more We demonstrate softening of the gold-to-gold contact in surface micromachined microelectromechanical switches under electrostatic force near 30 μN, which results from the heating of contact asperities sustaining electron transport. A bias potential that causes the switch contacts to soften is measured for initial contact resistance varying between 0.5 and 300 Ω. The asperity sizes in this range are comparable to the electron mean-free path at room temperature. We show that contact spots smaller than the mean-free path require larger bias for softening. Our results can be explained using a model accounting for ballistic electron transport in the contact.

IEEE/ASME Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems, 2006

Air-suspension of transmission-line structures using microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) techno... more Air-suspension of transmission-line structures using microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) technology provides the effective means to suppress substrate losses for radio-frequency (RF) signals. However, heating of these lines augmented by skin effects can be a major concern for RF MEMS reliability. To understand this phenomenon, a thermal energy transport model is developed in a simple analytical form. The model accounts for skin effects that cause Joule heating to be localized near the surface of the RF transmission line. Here, the model is validated through experimental data by measuring the temperature rise in an air-suspended MEMS coplanar waveguide (CPW). For this measurement, a new experimental methodology is also developed allowing direct current (dc) electrical resistance thermometry to be adopted in an RF setup. The modeling and experimental work presented in this paper allow us to provide design rules for preventing thermal and structural failures unique to the RF operation of suspended MEMS transmission-line components. For example, increasing the thickness from 1 to 3 m for a typical transmission line design enhances power handling from 5 to 125 W at 20 GHz, 3.3 to 80 W at 50 GHz, and 2.3 to 56 W at 100 GHz (a 25-fold increase in RF power handling).

Journal of Micromechanics and Microengineering, 2006

We propose an extended finite element-boundary integral method (EFE-BI) to model the electromagne... more We propose an extended finite element-boundary integral method (EFE-BI) to model the electromagnetic (EM) behavior of RF-MEMS switches over a wide frequency range from UHF to terahertz. Our new method integrates EM with finite element heat transfer analysis to extract heat dissipation on the micrometer-scale switch beam due to the non-uniform radio frequency (RF) current distribution. The developed EFE-BI technique is an extension of the standard finite element-boundary integral (FE-BI) method to allow for accurate characterization of RF-MEMS structures whose entire size is a small fraction of a wavelength (λ/250 or less) and may contain dimensions in the order of λ/50 000 or less. Our model predictions exhibit good agreement with experimental results obtained independent of the current study.

The implementation of direct contact RF MEMS switches is challenging owing to their unstable cont... more The implementation of direct contact RF MEMS switches is challenging owing to their unstable contact resistance and low power handling/delivery. This paper carefully studies RF MEMS switch contact behavior and proposes a new method to suppress its instability leading to device failure. Our study supports the hypothesis that MEMS contact switches fail primarily due to contact necking. Using the proposed method, we demonstrate the ability to keep MEMS switch contact resistance under ~0.05 ! in high-cycle cold-switching while a high contact current of >0.9 A is handled/delivered. 978-1-4244-5763-2/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE

Previous studies of electron transport within direct contact microelectromechanical switches have... more Previous studies of electron transport within direct contact microelectromechanical switches have found that conduction occurs via nanoscale contact asperities. It has been claimed that reduced contact resistance can be achieved by using multiple contact switches; however, the ability of these switches to enhance power handling or lifetime remains a question. To study the contact mechanism, single-input-multiple-output switches with ball-shaped dimples were specially designed and tested. At all voltage levels of hot-switching operation, uneven current sharing among the outputs was observed. Furthermore, at softening voltage, an irreversible multiple to single conduction transition occurs and is found to alternate among different outputs.

This paper presents experimental data together with 2 modeling approaches to demonstrate the incr... more This paper presents experimental data together with 2 modeling approaches to demonstrate the increased heating of MEMS suspended structures at radio frequencies due to skin effects. Distinguishable average temperature rises are measured at 2, 13.5, and 18 GHz in a 616 μm × 20 μm × 2.7 μm suspended coplanar waveguide using 4-wire measurement configuration. Our measurements compare well with: (1) previous electromagnetic simulations and (2) a newly introduced analytical thermal model incorporating only skin effects. Buckling and plastic yielding have been observed during and after measurement. This study provides a simple and quantitative approach for the design of suspended structures such as low loss transmission lines, filters and switches with high power handling capability.

We propose a technique to measure the opening time for micromachined switches and present substan... more We propose a technique to measure the opening time for micromachined switches and present substantial experimental data for switches with gold-gold contacts. The data demonstrate that contact opening time increases dramatically as apparent contact area increases or as pull-apart force or contact resistance decreases. A model of opening time is also presented with model parameters that fit the experimental data. Moreover, we show that transient mechanical vibrations can play an important role in reducing switch opening time.

We have experimentally observed the failure of metal contact RF MEMS switches due to a rapid rise... more We have experimentally observed the failure of metal contact RF MEMS switches due to a rapid rise in contact resistance during switching. We were able to repair the failed switches through heating the contact asperities by applying sufficient contact voltage. The data suggest the hypothesis that increasing contact resistance is caused by strain hardening of the contact surface. With this understanding, appropriate corrective measures can be taken to overcome failure, and suggestions for doing so are given in the paper.