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Papers by Religious Inquiries
Religious Inquiries, 2022
The Upanishads incorporate different interpretations of the relation between Brahman and the worl... more The Upanishads incorporate different interpretations of the relation between Brahman and the world, a difference that gives some people a reason to deny the existence of a unique philosophical doctrine in these texts. This article aims to note the internal consistency in the Upanishads with a view to analyzing their content in the words of Ibn ʿArabi and his commentators concerning the doctrine of the nondelimited oneness of being. For him, being is endowed with nondelimited oneness, and the world and multiple existing things limit this absolute reality, and this unique truth manifests itself within their framework, and therefore, it acquires multiplicity at the level of manifestation. In mystical experiences, when a mystic unites himself with God, he would either witness the oneness of being and have an acquaintance with the world as God, or consider the multiplicity within oneness, and hence, find the world distinct from Him. If we consider various Upanishadic phrases as expressions of such dual perspectives, then we will find a more precise understanding of, and we will have sufficient reasons to accept, their internal consistency.
Religious Inquiries, 2022
Graham Oppy is an analytical philosopher in the contemporary era. He acknowledges the rationality... more Graham Oppy is an analytical philosopher in the contemporary era. He acknowledges the rationality of theistic, as well as non-theistic, beliefs, but he does not consider them successful for arguing for or against God. In general, a successful argument is one that persuades all reasonable persons who have reasonable views about the issue in question. His basic criterion for the success of an argument is its ability to convince all reasonable persons who previously denied, or were undecided about, its conclusion. The present article tries to answer the following question: Is Oppy's standard for a satisfactory argument acceptable, and what challenges does it face? I conclude that his criterion, which renders all the traditional arguments for God's existence unsuccessful, is pessimistic and self-defeating, because Oppy cannot provide a successful argument, by his own lights, for the correctness of his standard. He seems to propagate agnosticism, with a vague criterion, regardless of the difference between rational reason and argument from the common sense (sound judgment argument), and defending a kind of strong rationalism.
Religious Inquiries, 2022
The word yaqīn (certainty) is key to epistemological discussions in Nahj al-Balagha, where the wo... more The word yaqīn (certainty) is key to epistemological discussions in Nahj al-Balagha, where the word and its cognates appear thirty one times. The analysis of the semantic network of "certainty" has an effective role in understanding Imam ʿAli's (a) stance toward epistemology. In the present study, a descriptive-analytical method is adopted to identify the semantic model of "certainty" in Nahj al-Balagha. After a clarification of the conceptual meaning of the word "certainty," a simultaneous analysis of the content of Nahj al-Balagha is performed at two levels: collocation and substitution. Through this process of text comprehension, a semantic model of certainty is introduced. In light of this model, it becomes evident that certainty is hierarchical. At the primary level, certainty accompanies faith, and at higher levels, it intensifies faith to the highest levels.
Religious Inquiries, 2022
Throughout their long history of theological debates, both Christians and Muslims have studied an... more Throughout their long history of theological debates, both Christians and Muslims have studied and challenged one another's beliefs and Scriptures. From the ninth century onward, Muslims have studied the Bible and criticized Christian Trinitarian doctrines. Similarly, al-Ghazālī, a famous Muslim philosopher and theologian wrote a treatise to challenge the divinity of Jesus. Since in his view Christians have identified Jesus with God in accordance with the fourth Gospel, he focuses on this Gospel and interprets it in a way to refute the divinity of Jesus. He suggests a metaphorical interpretation of this Gospel, and therefore, studies all of its complicated verses in figurative, rather than literal, terms. By doing so, he concludes Jesus was a human being, not a divine being as Christians believe.
Religious Inquiries, 2022
Since the purpose of the Qurʾān is to promote the Worldly and Otherworldly Life of mankind, and n... more Since the purpose of the Qurʾān is to promote the Worldly and Otherworldly Life of mankind, and nourish the human soul and body in all dimensions, we should consult this holy book in all aspects of our lives. However, some Shia and Sunni scholars believe that the implication of the Qurʾān is speculative. The present study seeks to determine the correct view of the definitive (qaṭʿī) and the speculative textual implication of Qurʾān. If we examine and explain the definitiveness of the usage-based intentions of speakers and, in most cases, the definitiveness of real intentions, adopt a holistic view of the verses, consider different sorts of verses (perspicuous (muhkam), intricate (mutashābih), etc.), and focus on the expressive miracle of the Word of God, then we might conclude that the word of revelation (i.e. the Qurʾān) enjoys a definitive implication, barring the intricate verses the interpretation of which no one knows except those who are firmly grounded in knowledge (al-rāsikhūn fi l-ʿilm). There are no doubts about the meanings of Quranic words more often than not.
Religious Inquiries, 2022
This article deals with the claim that Jesus (4 BC), Mani (216 CE), and Muḥammad (570 CE) are the... more This article deals with the claim that Jesus (4 BC), Mani (216 CE), and Muḥammad (570 CE) are the “Seals of Prophets,” relating it to the theologically developed Johannine concept of the Paraclete. These three historical figures are believed to be the “Seals of Prophets” after whom the chain of Prophets has ended according to their religious and cultural traditions. However, most of the research on the subject is pursued exclusively from within the perspective of each religious and cultural tradition, and without discussing the Johannine theologically developed concept of the Paraclete by relating it properly either to Jesus, or to Mani, or to Muḥammad, especially when one considers the fact that Mani claims to be the Paraclete of Jesus in his recently found works, Kelley Library and CMC Writings. Similarly, Muslim writers maintain that Muḥammad was the Paraclete of Jesus and the “Seal of Prophets.” Furthermore, there has been no question about how the claim of being the “Seal of Prophets” about these historical personalities could be considered valid, since after the death of Jesus, Mani came and claimed to be the Paraclete of Jesus and the “Seal of Prophets.” And after Mani’s death, Muḥammad came and, as Muslim writers believe, he was the Paraclete of Jesus and the “Seal of Prophets.”
Religious Inquiries, 2021
Semantics is the bridge by which meaning can be studied and texts can be understood and, finally,... more Semantics is the bridge by which meaning can be studied and texts can be understood and, finally, the intentions and implications of divine revelations can be discovered. The present study makes use of a methodical approach to deal with two essential issues: firstly, the semantic analysis of “furqan” will be carried out in the context of the holy Quran’s verses by way of a semantic study based on the linguistic context and investigation of the paradigmatic and syntagmatic relationships. Secondly, semantics will be deployed in reply to the skepticisms regarding the conceptualization of the word furqan in the Holy Quran as stated in the book Letters for the Prophet Muhammad: A Research on the Roots of the Quran. In line with investigations, it can be said that furqan was syntagmatically used with some words like piety and guidance and it was interchangeably used with words such as scale, Quran and the book. As a final definition of furqan, we suggest that it is not of a lexical character and that it is by exercising the divine teachings that one might gain a “light” by means of which one can distinguish the right from the wrong and easily overcome the calamities and conspiracies of the time. Accordingly, the claim by the author of the book Letters for the Prophet Muhammad to the effect that the term “furqan” refers to a book other than the present Quran is rejected.
Religious Inquiries, 2021
A controversial question in medical ethics is whether or not organ sale amounts to a violation of... more A controversial question in medical ethics is whether or not organ sale amounts to a violation of human dignity. To answer the question, we need to analyze various approaches to the problem of human dignity. In this paper, I focus on Islamic-Quranic and Kantian approaches to the problem, and examine the challenge of human dignity concerning kidney sale with a descriptive-analytic method. I show that, on both approaches, kidney sale per se does not compromise human dignity. Rather, it may as well protect human dignity and esteem. The key difference between the two approaches is with respect to conditions to be met in order for kidney sale to accord with human dignity. According to the Quranic account of human dignity, kidney sale will be compatible with human dignity and will thus be morally permissible if it is done for the sake of divine consent or satisfaction. However, on Kant’s view, kidney sale will be permissible when it is done out of respect for the law of reason, without involving any instrumentalization of a human being and his body organs. Other differences between the two approaches consist in the origin of human dignity, instrumental or non-instrumental view of the reason, and the extent of responsibility towards others.
Religious Inquiries, 2021
With the Western World’s interactions with the Islamic thought, Muslim intellectuals faced new ch... more With the Western World’s interactions with the Islamic thought, Muslim intellectuals faced new challenges regarding women and human rights. Committed Muslim scholars have always attempted to draw a clear accurate picture of a pure Islamic attitude towards women in family and society. Bint al-Huda al-Sadr amalgamated theoretical thinking with sociopolitical pragmatism. This study attempts to provide a clear picture of the theoretical and conceptual framework of her thought and her view of the role and position of women by analyzing the themes of her articles on women and their challenges in the contemporary society. The analysis first yielded 270 basic themes and 53 organizing themes; after comparing, integrating, and processing them, three inclusive themes and 26 organizing themes were finally extracted. A Muslim woman, Bint al-Huda al-Sadr believes, is first and foremost identified with her husband and children at home. With an independent and, indeed, distinctive identity from men, the woman shoulders specific familial responsibilities. Her most important duty is to appropriately and purposefully rear children. A successful discharge of this duty requires her social presence and life. A Muslim woman must discern the authentic Islamic culture and teachings, according to which she should impede and resist the spread of Western culture.
Religious Inquiries, 2021
Interactions between Muslims and Christians began with misgivings. However, passage of the time t... more Interactions between Muslims and Christians began with misgivings. However, passage of the time taught the followers of both religions to conduct a dialogue in a more charitable way. In the contemporary world where atheistic inclinations threaten, not a particular religion, but the very foundations of religiosity, an ever increasing convergence was formed between Muslims and Christians. In fact, this convergence still faces historical and theological obstacles. We intend to articulate Christian evangelism as an obstacle for the establishment of convergence in some places. We conclude that evangelization as a theological commitment, rooted in the New Testament and Christian tradition, extended from its limited version among Jews to other nations, including Muslims. Evangelization always plays the role of a major obstacle to fundamental convergence. Suspension of cultural and social identity, inferiority, and cultural uprooting are some of the repercussions of evangelization. Each of these is sufficient to hurt the religious feelings of the Muslim nation. In addition to these, one can add fraudulent activities and deception by several Christian missionaries.
Religious Inquiries, 2021
Serious considerations of the relationship between religion and human sciences, and the formulati... more Serious considerations of the relationship between religion and human sciences, and the formulation of human sciences as adapted to the cultural context of Islamic Iran, should be traced back to the intellectual context prior to the Islamic Revolution (1979) and in the thoughts of intellectuals such as ʿAllāma Ṭabāṭabāʾī, Muṭahharī, ʿAlī Sharīʿatī, and others. In the Seminary of Qom, efforts have been made in 1960s and 1970s to confront the ideas in modern Western philosophy and human sciences from the perspective of the Islamic culture and philosophy. In the post-revolutionary strands, however, there is no consensus on the possibility and necessity as well as methodology of indigenization (or Islamization) of human sciences. Even those who advocate the Islamization of sciences do not agree over the grounds, the method, and the strategy. The relationship between religion and human sciences can be studied at three levels: 1. The epistemological level: considering human sciences as epistemic fields—this can be referred to as an epistemological-propositional conception of human sciences.2. The institutional level: The institutional level is concerned with sociological studies of the institution of science as a major and crucial institution of a society. Émile Durkheim (1858-1917), as a key intellectual in human sciences, refers to sociology as a “science of institutions, their genesis and their functioning” (Durkheim 1964, 45). This level can be referred to as the academic conception of human sciences. 3. The discursive level: how human sciences have been experienced and understood by intellectual, cultural, social, religious and even political currents, what actions and reactions it has provoked, and how effective it has been in the field of policy-making and development plans. This level can be referred to as the discursive conception of human science. The main issues in contemporary Iran have been epistemic and conceptual, whereas institutionalization and discourse were not equally appreciated. In recent years, there have been attempts, particularly by the Council for Transformation in Human Sciences, to tie the epistemic level to both institutional and discursive levels. This article provides an analytical-critical review of this experience and concludes with suggestions for improving the experience.
Religious Inquiries, 2021
There are various aspects to the matter of God as light and, therefore, it is difficult to explai... more There are various aspects to the matter of God as light and, therefore, it is difficult to explain Quranic verses in this regard. In Quran 24:35, God is equated to light. This verse counts as a difficult verse of the Qurʾan due to the delicacy and subtlety of the topic, the supra-rationality of God, and the fact that the Quranic verse is ambiguous (mutashābih). Since light is a creation of God, how might God be compared to a creation? This question has sparked a variety of explanations for this verse. The ongoing development of ideas concerning this verse as well as the puzzle of God’s comparison to light require an examination of the issue in greater detail. The present study examines and evaluates the historical evolution of Imami approaches to the topic. It also provides a comprehensive theory inclusive of the previous views and in keeping with the context, exegetical narratives, and the meaning of light.
Religious Inquiries, 2021
Zand texts or Middle Persian translations of Avestan texts are an important part of Middle Persia... more Zand texts or Middle Persian translations of Avestan texts are an important part of Middle Persian literature. Zoroastrians believe that Zand literature is as important as Avestan texts. Most scholars suppose that Zand literature dates back to the period when Avestan texts were compiled. According to oral traditions, even some are of the opinion that Zand texts are older than Sassanid Archetype of Avesta. In the whole, it can be said that Zand literature, probably, belongs to the period in which Sassanid inscriptions were written. In this article, general concepts regarding translation and translation techniques will be examined including communicative and semantic translation. In addition, some manners of translation like borrowing, calque, transposition will be studied. This survey is based on Zand rendering of three gāthic hymns 28-30. One of the most important doctrines of Gāthās is the role of abstract forces which are called on along with God’s name. in later Avesta, these forces are totally individuated and called Aməša Spəntas “divine immortal beings.” We also consider whether the translator was aware of that these entities were abstract forces or he considered them as individual gods.
Religious Inquiries, 2021
The editing, reconstruction, translation and commentary upon all the extant fragments of two Part... more The editing, reconstruction, translation and commentary upon all the extant fragments of two Parthian Ewangelyōnīg bāšāhān (the ‘Hymns of the Gospel’) from the Manichaean Middle Iranian collection found in Turfan, Xinjiang, China, i.e. M88/II/, 91/I(?)/, M92, and M898, under one umbrella, is the most important goal of this article. We have tried to answer the substantive question of why the Ewangelyōnīg hymns had nothing to do at all with Mani’s Living Gospel itself, namely the actual prose text of the Living Gospel; in fact, Ewangelyōnīg hymns present a poetic description of the New Testament, as Mani saw it. We have argued that the Manichaean hymnology and tradition of writing ‘hymns’ and ‘psalms’ is not an Iranian tradition, although there was poetry in the Iranian tradition, like the poetry in Avestan and Pahlavi texts. This contribution is an attempt to shed light on the contents of the Ewangelyōnīg hymns, both thematically and structurally.
Religious Inquiries, 2021
In the current essay we have explained the philosophic-mystical principle of analogical unity of ... more In the current essay we have explained the philosophic-mystical principle of analogical unity of existence as a theory that offers a solution for overcoming this critical situation. The existing capacity in this principle is in a form that can be raised as a new theory for resolving the environmental crisis. This essay is composed of two parts: first part has dealt with the evaluation of the theories of environmental ethics and the causes of these crises. Second part has turned to the study and explanation of the principle of analogical unity of existence and its quality of application in resolving the environmental crises. Among the results of the current research one can refer to the fact that based on this principle we can ground the theory of "environmental spirituality". The theory of environmental spirituality has introduced the nature as a sacred being that contains all divine perfections like living, perceiving and rational. Moreover, it has been proven that for prevention from environmental crises instead of adoption of "ethics-centered" laws we need to adopt "spirituality-centered" laws. The method used in this essay is descriptive-analytic and the discussion is based on arguments.
Religious Inquiries, 2021
The current essay tackles Saint Augustine of Hippo’s conception of the issue of angels; and is ba... more The current essay tackles Saint Augustine of Hippo’s conception of the issue of angels; and is based on Augustine’s book: The City of God, one of the most influential works of Augustine that contains a synopsis of the foundations of angelology in the era of Church Fathers. In his book, Augustine discusses such issues as the eternity and emergence of the angels and their spiritual and luminal creation; and claims that angels enjoy free will and therefore are divided into two groups: good angels and bad angels; and he focused his book on the former group (good angels). According to Augustine, angels do not have any role in creation and everything is an immediate creation of God; however, their knowledge based on the model of seminal creation influences the phenomena and the creation of other beings in the world. According to Augustine's belief that has its origin in Christianity, although angels have an influence on the life and orientation of mankind in some ways, they do not have a stature to mediate for the prosperity and happiness of mankind, and it is Jesus the Christ solely who is entitled and competent for such mediation.
Religious Inquiries, 2021
The spiritual exercises practiced by the wayfarers on the path of Truth should be done in differe... more The spiritual exercises practiced by the wayfarers on the path of Truth should be done in different stages, so that the traveler on the mystical path gradually and rightly realizes spiritual perfection. Most mystics and scholars believe in the existence of seven stages – as number seven is always revered and held sacrosanct in our religious texts and national narratives. Some thinkers, like Ibn Sina, contend that the first step is the seeking or demanding, other philosophers maintain that it is doubt, while others, including Khwaja Abdullah and Imam Khomeini, believe that it is the awakening. Of course, such different views share similarities. The authors of this study will attempt to highlight the frequency of the stages of the Truth path wayfaring as well as discuss the differences and similarities on the stations of wayfaring, while trying to choose the best view on the order of the stages of wayfaring, especially the first stage. Of these stations, the valleys of intention, seeking, repentance and penitence, vigilance, sorrow and annihilation have the highest frequency in the view of authorities.
Religious Inquiries, 2021
Man employs a variety of methods to communicate his ideas and intentions. When he trusts that his... more Man employs a variety of methods to communicate his ideas and intentions. When he trusts that his audiences are competent enough to comprehend his oral or written message, and when he feels assured that no prejudice or misunderstanding exists on the part of the audience; he speaks directly and avoids figurative or ambiguous language. In contrast, if he feels or predicts otherwise, he tends to apply another strategy, expressing meanings implicitly under the guise of allusion, symbolism, and/or allegories. Some researchers believe that symbolic mysterious language (ramz) is exclusively employed in mathematics and mysticism to express topical objectives, but in this article, we will attempt to explain the application of this language in philosophy, and demonstrate why Muslim philosophers leaned toward using this encoded language. The author of the present study believes, to the best of his knowledge, that this research study is the first of its kind that seeks to explore the motives and considerations behind the use of this encoded language by philosophers.
Man employs a variety of methods to communicate his ideas and intentions. When he trusts that his audiences are competent enough to comprehend his oral or written message, and when he feels assured that no prejudice or misunderstanding exists on the part of the audience; he speaks directly and avoids figurative or ambiguous language. In contrast, if he feels or predicts otherwise, he tends to apply another strategy, expressing meanings implicitly under the guise of allusion, symbolism, and/or allegories. Some researchers believe that symbolic mysterious language (ramz) is exclusively employed in mathematics and mysticism to express topical objectives, but in this article, we will attempt to explain the application of this language in philosophy, and demonstrate why Muslim philosophers leaned toward using this encoded language. The author of the present study believes, to the best of his knowledge, that this research study is the first of its kind that seeks to explore the motives and considerations behind the use of this encoded language by philosophers.
Religious Inquiries, 2019
The controversies and theological debates between different religions have always been an interes... more The controversies and theological debates between different religions have always been an interesting topic for the scholars of religion. These debates were usually carried out in two ways: orally, in a meeting dedicated to these debates, or in writing. One of the religious traditions criticized since its emergence and against which many refutations were written in the early Islamic centuries is "heterodoxy." Before Islam, this term was applied to Manichaeans; however, after Islam, it came to signify any heretic, atheist, or infidel. This extension of semantic inclusion led the followers of various religions, including Christians, Zoroastrians and Muslims, to work against the heterodox and write refutations to criticize their thoughts and beliefs. This article seeks to study and analyze these refutations.
Religious Inquiries, 2022
The Upanishads incorporate different interpretations of the relation between Brahman and the worl... more The Upanishads incorporate different interpretations of the relation between Brahman and the world, a difference that gives some people a reason to deny the existence of a unique philosophical doctrine in these texts. This article aims to note the internal consistency in the Upanishads with a view to analyzing their content in the words of Ibn ʿArabi and his commentators concerning the doctrine of the nondelimited oneness of being. For him, being is endowed with nondelimited oneness, and the world and multiple existing things limit this absolute reality, and this unique truth manifests itself within their framework, and therefore, it acquires multiplicity at the level of manifestation. In mystical experiences, when a mystic unites himself with God, he would either witness the oneness of being and have an acquaintance with the world as God, or consider the multiplicity within oneness, and hence, find the world distinct from Him. If we consider various Upanishadic phrases as expressions of such dual perspectives, then we will find a more precise understanding of, and we will have sufficient reasons to accept, their internal consistency.
Religious Inquiries, 2022
Graham Oppy is an analytical philosopher in the contemporary era. He acknowledges the rationality... more Graham Oppy is an analytical philosopher in the contemporary era. He acknowledges the rationality of theistic, as well as non-theistic, beliefs, but he does not consider them successful for arguing for or against God. In general, a successful argument is one that persuades all reasonable persons who have reasonable views about the issue in question. His basic criterion for the success of an argument is its ability to convince all reasonable persons who previously denied, or were undecided about, its conclusion. The present article tries to answer the following question: Is Oppy's standard for a satisfactory argument acceptable, and what challenges does it face? I conclude that his criterion, which renders all the traditional arguments for God's existence unsuccessful, is pessimistic and self-defeating, because Oppy cannot provide a successful argument, by his own lights, for the correctness of his standard. He seems to propagate agnosticism, with a vague criterion, regardless of the difference between rational reason and argument from the common sense (sound judgment argument), and defending a kind of strong rationalism.
Religious Inquiries, 2022
The word yaqīn (certainty) is key to epistemological discussions in Nahj al-Balagha, where the wo... more The word yaqīn (certainty) is key to epistemological discussions in Nahj al-Balagha, where the word and its cognates appear thirty one times. The analysis of the semantic network of "certainty" has an effective role in understanding Imam ʿAli's (a) stance toward epistemology. In the present study, a descriptive-analytical method is adopted to identify the semantic model of "certainty" in Nahj al-Balagha. After a clarification of the conceptual meaning of the word "certainty," a simultaneous analysis of the content of Nahj al-Balagha is performed at two levels: collocation and substitution. Through this process of text comprehension, a semantic model of certainty is introduced. In light of this model, it becomes evident that certainty is hierarchical. At the primary level, certainty accompanies faith, and at higher levels, it intensifies faith to the highest levels.
Religious Inquiries, 2022
Throughout their long history of theological debates, both Christians and Muslims have studied an... more Throughout their long history of theological debates, both Christians and Muslims have studied and challenged one another's beliefs and Scriptures. From the ninth century onward, Muslims have studied the Bible and criticized Christian Trinitarian doctrines. Similarly, al-Ghazālī, a famous Muslim philosopher and theologian wrote a treatise to challenge the divinity of Jesus. Since in his view Christians have identified Jesus with God in accordance with the fourth Gospel, he focuses on this Gospel and interprets it in a way to refute the divinity of Jesus. He suggests a metaphorical interpretation of this Gospel, and therefore, studies all of its complicated verses in figurative, rather than literal, terms. By doing so, he concludes Jesus was a human being, not a divine being as Christians believe.
Religious Inquiries, 2022
Since the purpose of the Qurʾān is to promote the Worldly and Otherworldly Life of mankind, and n... more Since the purpose of the Qurʾān is to promote the Worldly and Otherworldly Life of mankind, and nourish the human soul and body in all dimensions, we should consult this holy book in all aspects of our lives. However, some Shia and Sunni scholars believe that the implication of the Qurʾān is speculative. The present study seeks to determine the correct view of the definitive (qaṭʿī) and the speculative textual implication of Qurʾān. If we examine and explain the definitiveness of the usage-based intentions of speakers and, in most cases, the definitiveness of real intentions, adopt a holistic view of the verses, consider different sorts of verses (perspicuous (muhkam), intricate (mutashābih), etc.), and focus on the expressive miracle of the Word of God, then we might conclude that the word of revelation (i.e. the Qurʾān) enjoys a definitive implication, barring the intricate verses the interpretation of which no one knows except those who are firmly grounded in knowledge (al-rāsikhūn fi l-ʿilm). There are no doubts about the meanings of Quranic words more often than not.
Religious Inquiries, 2022
This article deals with the claim that Jesus (4 BC), Mani (216 CE), and Muḥammad (570 CE) are the... more This article deals with the claim that Jesus (4 BC), Mani (216 CE), and Muḥammad (570 CE) are the “Seals of Prophets,” relating it to the theologically developed Johannine concept of the Paraclete. These three historical figures are believed to be the “Seals of Prophets” after whom the chain of Prophets has ended according to their religious and cultural traditions. However, most of the research on the subject is pursued exclusively from within the perspective of each religious and cultural tradition, and without discussing the Johannine theologically developed concept of the Paraclete by relating it properly either to Jesus, or to Mani, or to Muḥammad, especially when one considers the fact that Mani claims to be the Paraclete of Jesus in his recently found works, Kelley Library and CMC Writings. Similarly, Muslim writers maintain that Muḥammad was the Paraclete of Jesus and the “Seal of Prophets.” Furthermore, there has been no question about how the claim of being the “Seal of Prophets” about these historical personalities could be considered valid, since after the death of Jesus, Mani came and claimed to be the Paraclete of Jesus and the “Seal of Prophets.” And after Mani’s death, Muḥammad came and, as Muslim writers believe, he was the Paraclete of Jesus and the “Seal of Prophets.”
Religious Inquiries, 2021
Semantics is the bridge by which meaning can be studied and texts can be understood and, finally,... more Semantics is the bridge by which meaning can be studied and texts can be understood and, finally, the intentions and implications of divine revelations can be discovered. The present study makes use of a methodical approach to deal with two essential issues: firstly, the semantic analysis of “furqan” will be carried out in the context of the holy Quran’s verses by way of a semantic study based on the linguistic context and investigation of the paradigmatic and syntagmatic relationships. Secondly, semantics will be deployed in reply to the skepticisms regarding the conceptualization of the word furqan in the Holy Quran as stated in the book Letters for the Prophet Muhammad: A Research on the Roots of the Quran. In line with investigations, it can be said that furqan was syntagmatically used with some words like piety and guidance and it was interchangeably used with words such as scale, Quran and the book. As a final definition of furqan, we suggest that it is not of a lexical character and that it is by exercising the divine teachings that one might gain a “light” by means of which one can distinguish the right from the wrong and easily overcome the calamities and conspiracies of the time. Accordingly, the claim by the author of the book Letters for the Prophet Muhammad to the effect that the term “furqan” refers to a book other than the present Quran is rejected.
Religious Inquiries, 2021
A controversial question in medical ethics is whether or not organ sale amounts to a violation of... more A controversial question in medical ethics is whether or not organ sale amounts to a violation of human dignity. To answer the question, we need to analyze various approaches to the problem of human dignity. In this paper, I focus on Islamic-Quranic and Kantian approaches to the problem, and examine the challenge of human dignity concerning kidney sale with a descriptive-analytic method. I show that, on both approaches, kidney sale per se does not compromise human dignity. Rather, it may as well protect human dignity and esteem. The key difference between the two approaches is with respect to conditions to be met in order for kidney sale to accord with human dignity. According to the Quranic account of human dignity, kidney sale will be compatible with human dignity and will thus be morally permissible if it is done for the sake of divine consent or satisfaction. However, on Kant’s view, kidney sale will be permissible when it is done out of respect for the law of reason, without involving any instrumentalization of a human being and his body organs. Other differences between the two approaches consist in the origin of human dignity, instrumental or non-instrumental view of the reason, and the extent of responsibility towards others.
Religious Inquiries, 2021
With the Western World’s interactions with the Islamic thought, Muslim intellectuals faced new ch... more With the Western World’s interactions with the Islamic thought, Muslim intellectuals faced new challenges regarding women and human rights. Committed Muslim scholars have always attempted to draw a clear accurate picture of a pure Islamic attitude towards women in family and society. Bint al-Huda al-Sadr amalgamated theoretical thinking with sociopolitical pragmatism. This study attempts to provide a clear picture of the theoretical and conceptual framework of her thought and her view of the role and position of women by analyzing the themes of her articles on women and their challenges in the contemporary society. The analysis first yielded 270 basic themes and 53 organizing themes; after comparing, integrating, and processing them, three inclusive themes and 26 organizing themes were finally extracted. A Muslim woman, Bint al-Huda al-Sadr believes, is first and foremost identified with her husband and children at home. With an independent and, indeed, distinctive identity from men, the woman shoulders specific familial responsibilities. Her most important duty is to appropriately and purposefully rear children. A successful discharge of this duty requires her social presence and life. A Muslim woman must discern the authentic Islamic culture and teachings, according to which she should impede and resist the spread of Western culture.
Religious Inquiries, 2021
Interactions between Muslims and Christians began with misgivings. However, passage of the time t... more Interactions between Muslims and Christians began with misgivings. However, passage of the time taught the followers of both religions to conduct a dialogue in a more charitable way. In the contemporary world where atheistic inclinations threaten, not a particular religion, but the very foundations of religiosity, an ever increasing convergence was formed between Muslims and Christians. In fact, this convergence still faces historical and theological obstacles. We intend to articulate Christian evangelism as an obstacle for the establishment of convergence in some places. We conclude that evangelization as a theological commitment, rooted in the New Testament and Christian tradition, extended from its limited version among Jews to other nations, including Muslims. Evangelization always plays the role of a major obstacle to fundamental convergence. Suspension of cultural and social identity, inferiority, and cultural uprooting are some of the repercussions of evangelization. Each of these is sufficient to hurt the religious feelings of the Muslim nation. In addition to these, one can add fraudulent activities and deception by several Christian missionaries.
Religious Inquiries, 2021
Serious considerations of the relationship between religion and human sciences, and the formulati... more Serious considerations of the relationship between religion and human sciences, and the formulation of human sciences as adapted to the cultural context of Islamic Iran, should be traced back to the intellectual context prior to the Islamic Revolution (1979) and in the thoughts of intellectuals such as ʿAllāma Ṭabāṭabāʾī, Muṭahharī, ʿAlī Sharīʿatī, and others. In the Seminary of Qom, efforts have been made in 1960s and 1970s to confront the ideas in modern Western philosophy and human sciences from the perspective of the Islamic culture and philosophy. In the post-revolutionary strands, however, there is no consensus on the possibility and necessity as well as methodology of indigenization (or Islamization) of human sciences. Even those who advocate the Islamization of sciences do not agree over the grounds, the method, and the strategy. The relationship between religion and human sciences can be studied at three levels: 1. The epistemological level: considering human sciences as epistemic fields—this can be referred to as an epistemological-propositional conception of human sciences.2. The institutional level: The institutional level is concerned with sociological studies of the institution of science as a major and crucial institution of a society. Émile Durkheim (1858-1917), as a key intellectual in human sciences, refers to sociology as a “science of institutions, their genesis and their functioning” (Durkheim 1964, 45). This level can be referred to as the academic conception of human sciences. 3. The discursive level: how human sciences have been experienced and understood by intellectual, cultural, social, religious and even political currents, what actions and reactions it has provoked, and how effective it has been in the field of policy-making and development plans. This level can be referred to as the discursive conception of human science. The main issues in contemporary Iran have been epistemic and conceptual, whereas institutionalization and discourse were not equally appreciated. In recent years, there have been attempts, particularly by the Council for Transformation in Human Sciences, to tie the epistemic level to both institutional and discursive levels. This article provides an analytical-critical review of this experience and concludes with suggestions for improving the experience.
Religious Inquiries, 2021
There are various aspects to the matter of God as light and, therefore, it is difficult to explai... more There are various aspects to the matter of God as light and, therefore, it is difficult to explain Quranic verses in this regard. In Quran 24:35, God is equated to light. This verse counts as a difficult verse of the Qurʾan due to the delicacy and subtlety of the topic, the supra-rationality of God, and the fact that the Quranic verse is ambiguous (mutashābih). Since light is a creation of God, how might God be compared to a creation? This question has sparked a variety of explanations for this verse. The ongoing development of ideas concerning this verse as well as the puzzle of God’s comparison to light require an examination of the issue in greater detail. The present study examines and evaluates the historical evolution of Imami approaches to the topic. It also provides a comprehensive theory inclusive of the previous views and in keeping with the context, exegetical narratives, and the meaning of light.
Religious Inquiries, 2021
Zand texts or Middle Persian translations of Avestan texts are an important part of Middle Persia... more Zand texts or Middle Persian translations of Avestan texts are an important part of Middle Persian literature. Zoroastrians believe that Zand literature is as important as Avestan texts. Most scholars suppose that Zand literature dates back to the period when Avestan texts were compiled. According to oral traditions, even some are of the opinion that Zand texts are older than Sassanid Archetype of Avesta. In the whole, it can be said that Zand literature, probably, belongs to the period in which Sassanid inscriptions were written. In this article, general concepts regarding translation and translation techniques will be examined including communicative and semantic translation. In addition, some manners of translation like borrowing, calque, transposition will be studied. This survey is based on Zand rendering of three gāthic hymns 28-30. One of the most important doctrines of Gāthās is the role of abstract forces which are called on along with God’s name. in later Avesta, these forces are totally individuated and called Aməša Spəntas “divine immortal beings.” We also consider whether the translator was aware of that these entities were abstract forces or he considered them as individual gods.
Religious Inquiries, 2021
The editing, reconstruction, translation and commentary upon all the extant fragments of two Part... more The editing, reconstruction, translation and commentary upon all the extant fragments of two Parthian Ewangelyōnīg bāšāhān (the ‘Hymns of the Gospel’) from the Manichaean Middle Iranian collection found in Turfan, Xinjiang, China, i.e. M88/II/, 91/I(?)/, M92, and M898, under one umbrella, is the most important goal of this article. We have tried to answer the substantive question of why the Ewangelyōnīg hymns had nothing to do at all with Mani’s Living Gospel itself, namely the actual prose text of the Living Gospel; in fact, Ewangelyōnīg hymns present a poetic description of the New Testament, as Mani saw it. We have argued that the Manichaean hymnology and tradition of writing ‘hymns’ and ‘psalms’ is not an Iranian tradition, although there was poetry in the Iranian tradition, like the poetry in Avestan and Pahlavi texts. This contribution is an attempt to shed light on the contents of the Ewangelyōnīg hymns, both thematically and structurally.
Religious Inquiries, 2021
In the current essay we have explained the philosophic-mystical principle of analogical unity of ... more In the current essay we have explained the philosophic-mystical principle of analogical unity of existence as a theory that offers a solution for overcoming this critical situation. The existing capacity in this principle is in a form that can be raised as a new theory for resolving the environmental crisis. This essay is composed of two parts: first part has dealt with the evaluation of the theories of environmental ethics and the causes of these crises. Second part has turned to the study and explanation of the principle of analogical unity of existence and its quality of application in resolving the environmental crises. Among the results of the current research one can refer to the fact that based on this principle we can ground the theory of "environmental spirituality". The theory of environmental spirituality has introduced the nature as a sacred being that contains all divine perfections like living, perceiving and rational. Moreover, it has been proven that for prevention from environmental crises instead of adoption of "ethics-centered" laws we need to adopt "spirituality-centered" laws. The method used in this essay is descriptive-analytic and the discussion is based on arguments.
Religious Inquiries, 2021
The current essay tackles Saint Augustine of Hippo’s conception of the issue of angels; and is ba... more The current essay tackles Saint Augustine of Hippo’s conception of the issue of angels; and is based on Augustine’s book: The City of God, one of the most influential works of Augustine that contains a synopsis of the foundations of angelology in the era of Church Fathers. In his book, Augustine discusses such issues as the eternity and emergence of the angels and their spiritual and luminal creation; and claims that angels enjoy free will and therefore are divided into two groups: good angels and bad angels; and he focused his book on the former group (good angels). According to Augustine, angels do not have any role in creation and everything is an immediate creation of God; however, their knowledge based on the model of seminal creation influences the phenomena and the creation of other beings in the world. According to Augustine's belief that has its origin in Christianity, although angels have an influence on the life and orientation of mankind in some ways, they do not have a stature to mediate for the prosperity and happiness of mankind, and it is Jesus the Christ solely who is entitled and competent for such mediation.
Religious Inquiries, 2021
The spiritual exercises practiced by the wayfarers on the path of Truth should be done in differe... more The spiritual exercises practiced by the wayfarers on the path of Truth should be done in different stages, so that the traveler on the mystical path gradually and rightly realizes spiritual perfection. Most mystics and scholars believe in the existence of seven stages – as number seven is always revered and held sacrosanct in our religious texts and national narratives. Some thinkers, like Ibn Sina, contend that the first step is the seeking or demanding, other philosophers maintain that it is doubt, while others, including Khwaja Abdullah and Imam Khomeini, believe that it is the awakening. Of course, such different views share similarities. The authors of this study will attempt to highlight the frequency of the stages of the Truth path wayfaring as well as discuss the differences and similarities on the stations of wayfaring, while trying to choose the best view on the order of the stages of wayfaring, especially the first stage. Of these stations, the valleys of intention, seeking, repentance and penitence, vigilance, sorrow and annihilation have the highest frequency in the view of authorities.
Religious Inquiries, 2021
Man employs a variety of methods to communicate his ideas and intentions. When he trusts that his... more Man employs a variety of methods to communicate his ideas and intentions. When he trusts that his audiences are competent enough to comprehend his oral or written message, and when he feels assured that no prejudice or misunderstanding exists on the part of the audience; he speaks directly and avoids figurative or ambiguous language. In contrast, if he feels or predicts otherwise, he tends to apply another strategy, expressing meanings implicitly under the guise of allusion, symbolism, and/or allegories. Some researchers believe that symbolic mysterious language (ramz) is exclusively employed in mathematics and mysticism to express topical objectives, but in this article, we will attempt to explain the application of this language in philosophy, and demonstrate why Muslim philosophers leaned toward using this encoded language. The author of the present study believes, to the best of his knowledge, that this research study is the first of its kind that seeks to explore the motives and considerations behind the use of this encoded language by philosophers.
Man employs a variety of methods to communicate his ideas and intentions. When he trusts that his audiences are competent enough to comprehend his oral or written message, and when he feels assured that no prejudice or misunderstanding exists on the part of the audience; he speaks directly and avoids figurative or ambiguous language. In contrast, if he feels or predicts otherwise, he tends to apply another strategy, expressing meanings implicitly under the guise of allusion, symbolism, and/or allegories. Some researchers believe that symbolic mysterious language (ramz) is exclusively employed in mathematics and mysticism to express topical objectives, but in this article, we will attempt to explain the application of this language in philosophy, and demonstrate why Muslim philosophers leaned toward using this encoded language. The author of the present study believes, to the best of his knowledge, that this research study is the first of its kind that seeks to explore the motives and considerations behind the use of this encoded language by philosophers.
Religious Inquiries, 2019
The controversies and theological debates between different religions have always been an interes... more The controversies and theological debates between different religions have always been an interesting topic for the scholars of religion. These debates were usually carried out in two ways: orally, in a meeting dedicated to these debates, or in writing. One of the religious traditions criticized since its emergence and against which many refutations were written in the early Islamic centuries is "heterodoxy." Before Islam, this term was applied to Manichaeans; however, after Islam, it came to signify any heretic, atheist, or infidel. This extension of semantic inclusion led the followers of various religions, including Christians, Zoroastrians and Muslims, to work against the heterodox and write refutations to criticize their thoughts and beliefs. This article seeks to study and analyze these refutations.