Lisa Schweitzer | University of Southern California (original) (raw)

Invited Commentary by Lisa Schweitzer

Papers by Lisa Schweitzer

Large cities in the United States face multiple challenges in meeting federal air quality standar... more Large cities in the United States face multiple challenges in meeting federal air quality standards. One difficulty arises from the uncertainties in evaluating traffic-related air pollution, especially the formation of secondary pollutants such as ozone and some particulate matter. Current air quality models are not well-suited to evaluate the impact of a short-term traffic change on air quality. Using regional traffic and ambient air quality data from Southern California, we examine the impact of a two-day freeway closure on traffic and several criteria air pollutants (CO, NO2, O3, PM10, PM2.5). The results indicate that regional traffic decreased about 14% on average during the closure. Daily average PM2.5 levels decreased by about 32%, and daily 8-hour maximum ozone levels by about 16%. However, the daily 1-hour maximum NO2 concentration was higher at some sites during the closure. Despite the mixed results with NO2, this study provides empirical evidence to support traffic reduction as an effective strategy to address chronic air pollution problems, especially with regard to ozone, in Southern California.

The transportation sector poses major problems for ecology. Of greatest concern is motorized tran... more The transportation sector poses major problems for ecology. Of greatest concern is motorized transport such as cars, trucks, and airplanes. These activities consume about 61.5% of all the oil used each year on the planet; the largest share of that goes to passenger mobility, or cars (Rodrigue et al. 2013). Motorized transport accounts for roughly a quarter of global carbon monoxide (related to climate change emissions (OECD IEA 2009). The human health effects of road transport (both freight and cars) account for nearly $1 trillion in human health costs globally in 2010 (OECD 2014). Vehicular crashes cause 1.24 million deaths worldwide, while an additional 20-50 million are injured. Road crashes are the leading cause of death among young people ages 15-29, and the second leading cause of death worldwide among young people ages 5-14.

Transit advocates have high hopes for what transit can accomplish. As a result, most writing on t... more Transit advocates have high hopes for what transit can accomplish. As a result, most writing on transit lauds its potential benefits: Transit cleans up the air! It alleviates congestion! It raises property values! It revitalizes retail! It combats global warming! It makes people thinner! But transit can do few of those wonderful things if it does not first serve passengers, and high-quality passenger service requires both vision and prudent management. Transit service quality depends on many factors, including service frequencies, information, geographic placement, security, driver courtesy, station design, fares, and many other factors. Does a train that comes every 10 minutes provide better service than a bus that comes every 5 minutes, simply because the former is a train and the latter a bus? Some argue yes; others argue no. Should transit operators try to serve every far-flung suburb in a region, or should cities focus on small, geographically limited networks surrounding particular activity centers, like downtown? Again, good arguments appear on both sides. This chapter presents an introduction to what transit is, how it works, and the dilemmas that transit operators face as they both navigate and shape urban geographies. We shall assume throughout that transit is important to cities, thus leaving aside advocacy in favor of exploring the field's many challenges.

Computer-Aided Civil and Infrastructure Engineering , 2014

"Household members tend to evacuate as a unit. However, most engineering-based evacuation mod- el... more "Household members tend to evacuate as a unit. However, most engineering-based evacuation mod- els treat evacuees as independent and separate enti- ties, and overlook the interactions among household members during an evacuation (i.e., gathering chil- dren/spouses or uniting with other family members at home). The omission of these behaviors leads to im- precise modeling of evacuation situations. Additionally, transportation mode choice in a no-notice evacuation has been seldom investigated. We present a framework to in- corporate both household-gathering behavior and mode choice in an emergency into an evacuation model to ex- amine the effects of these two issues on evacuation ef- ficiency and network performance. The framework was tested in the Chicago metropolitan region for two hypo- thetical incidents with evacuation radii 5 and 25 miles. Models that omit gathering behavior yield dangerously optimistic evacuation times and network congestion lev- els compared to models that include family interactions. These optimistic estimates are significant for a large-scale evacuation—the reduction in the number of evacuees who can reach safe zones in a certain time threshold is nearly 50% between the gathering and no-gathering models. Gathering behavior could also cause distinct ef- fects on network performance for inner and outer ar- eas, the break point of which may be where severe bot- tlenecks are located. In this study, average travel speed
*To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: murraytu @vt.edu.
⃝C 2013 Computer-Aided Civil and Infrastructure Engineering. DOI: 10.1111/mice.12008
increases on the overall network within 15 miles of the incident location (where downtown Chicago is located), but decreases outside the 15-mile radius. These results would be completely overlooked without incorporating the gathering behavior yet are critical for evacuation management.
"

Transport Policy, 2012

Research on environmental justice and social inclusion suggests that high-income wage earners may... more Research on environmental justice and social inclusion suggests that high-income wage earners may have better job access due to their greater choices in both housing and transportation markets. This study compares the jobs/housing balance and mode choice of different groups of employees of a large employer (27,113 employees) and those of the ‘‘reference groups’’ from comparable employees working for smaller employers in Los Angeles. Based on spatial and statistical analyses, this paper finds the following:
a) Across all employee groups, a better jobs/housing balance was accompanied by higher income, as was likelihood to patronize Travel Demand Management (TDM) programs.
b) Employees from the large employer had more options for carpooling and thus drove alone less, even after controlling overall housing stock, residential location, annual income, and/or commute time.
c) Across all employee groups, good jobs/housing balance did not necessarily bring about green mode
choice.
d) Comprehensive TDM measures by the large employer significantly reduced employees’ dependence
on driving, even in a region where autocommuting dominates. However, these measures were
costly to implement.
e) Different employee groups favor different TDM programs, and the patterns are marked by income.
The above findings suggest that shared or consolidated TDM and housing programs, which pool
smaller employers, might better promote green mode choice. Participating employers may also negotiate better deals for program implementation when these programs involve third-party transit agencies and contractors.

Journal of Transportation Safety and Security, 2012

In no-notice events, adults must decide whether and how to gather household dependents. This arti... more In no-notice events, adults must decide whether and how to gather household dependents. This article examines how effectively households plan their evacuation logistics for a daytime event in a multimodal network and how these plans match the outcomes of a nonlinear integer optimization approach that simultaneously determines optimal meeting locations, final destinations, and family member pickup assignment and sequencing. The model outcomes are compared to information from 59 in-depth interviews. Households largely assign emergency-gathering activities to the parent normally responsible for child-related travel and prefer to meet at home; these decisions are optimal only in some cases. The authors also identify the sensitivity of the optimized logistics to the time adults spend at pickup locations gathering their dependents and “break-even” points where a combination of walking and trains become competitive with personal vehicles. For some households, the additional travel time to make these modes competitive is fewer than 2 h, which is not necessarily an unexpected delay during evacuations. Thus, emergency management agencies should continue to include transit agencies in their planning process and ensure that employees are available to provide services for cases where severe congestion is encountered, and not just for socioeconomically vulnerable populations.

J. Urban Planning and Development , 2011

Transportation Research Part A, 2012

In a no-notice disaster (e.g., nuclear explosion, terrorist attack, or hazardous materials releas... more In a no-notice disaster (e.g., nuclear explosion, terrorist attack, or hazardous materials release), an evacuation may start immediately after the disaster strikes. When a no-notice evacuation occurs during the daytime, household members are scattered throughout the regional network, and some family members (e.g., children) may need to be picked up. This household pick-up and gathering behavior was seldom investigated in previous work due to insufficient data; this gap in our understanding about who within families handles child- gathering is addressed here. Three hundred fifteen interviews were conducted in the Chi- cago metropolitan area to ascertain how respondents planned their response to hypothet- ical no-notice emergency evacuation orders. This paper presents the influencing factors that affect household pick-up and gathering behavior/expectations and the logistic regres- sion models developed to predict the probability that parents pick up a child in three sit- uations: a normal weekday and two hypothetical emergency scenarios. The results showed that both mothers and fathers were more likely to pick up a child under emergency condi- tions than they were on a normal weekday. For a normal weekday, increasing the distance between parents and children decreased the probability of parents picking up children; in other words, the farther parents are from their children, the less likely they will pick them up. In an emergency, effects of distance on pick-up behavior were significant for women, but not significant for men; that is, increasing the distance between parents and children decreased the probability that mothers pick up a child, but had a less significant effect on the fathers’ probability. Another significant factor affecting child pick-up behavior/expec- tations was household income when controlling for distance. The results of this study con- firm that parents expect to gather children under emergency conditions, which needs to be accounted for in evacuation planning; failure to do so could cause difficulties in executing the pick-ups, lead to considerable queuing and rerouting, and extend the time citizens are exposed to high levels of risk.

Journal of the American Planning Association, Jan 1, 2010

Problem: Recently, public health researchers have argued that infill development and sprawl reduc... more Problem: Recently, public health researchers have argued that infill development and sprawl reduction may improve respiratory outcomes for urban residents, largely by reducing vehicle travel and its attendant mobile-source emissions. But infill can also increase the number of residents exposed to poor air quality within central cities. Aside from emissions studies, planners have little information on the connections between urban form, ambient pollutant levels, and human exposures or how infill changes these. Purpose: We examined neighborhood exposures in 80 metropolitan areas in the United States to address whether neighborhood-level air quality outcomes are better in compact regions than in sprawled regions. Methods: We used multilevel regression models to find the empirical relationship between a measure of regional urban form and neighborhood air quality outcomes. Results and conclusions: Ozone concentrations are significantly lower in compact regions, but ozone exposures in neighborhoods are higher in compact regions. Fine particulate concentrations do not correlate significantly with regional compactness, but fine particulate exposures in neighborhoods are also higher in compact regions. Exposures to both ozone and fine particulates are also higher in neighborhoods with high proportions of African Americans, Asian ethnic minorities, and poor households.

Collaborative governance in the United States and Korea / edited by Yong-Duck Jung, Daniel A. Mazmanian and Shui-Yan Tang. , 2009

Environmental justice concerns, in part, the maldistribution of both environmental hazards and nu... more Environmental justice concerns, in part, the maldistribution of both environmental hazards and nuisances such that impoverished communities, particularly impoverished communities of color, contend with the effects of industry more so than those who are affluent. As communities of color have organized to confront this problem, their claims of injustice have revealed significant issues across all sectors of environmental governance, both in the U.S. and internationally, and reflect failures of representative institutions in urban land management. In this manuscript, we derive a socio-spatial approach to management of facility siting decisions based on the research in environmental justice. Then we discuss some reforms to facility siting that have been proposed and implemented in the US, Canada, and western Europe over the course of three decades and how these reforms can improve the legitimacy of facility siting decisions.

Transportation , Jan 1, 2008

Those who oppose congestion pricing on roads frequently argue that low-income, urban residents wi... more Those who oppose congestion pricing on roads frequently argue that low-income, urban residents will suffer disproportionately if tolled to use congested freeways, either through higher out-of-pocket costs for travel and/or by diverting, delaying, or discontinuing trips. Too often, however, this assertion is made in the abstract, without considering 1) how much impoverished residents currently pay for transportation through fuel and sales taxes or 2) how much impoverished residents would pay for highway infrastructure under an alternative revenuegenerating schema, such as an increased sales tax. And while increased local sales taxes are among the faster growing forms of transportation revenues in the U.S., they are rarely criticized on social equity grounds. In this paper, we compare the cost burden of an existing congestionpriced high-occupancy/toll facility on State Route 91 (SR91) in Orange County, California, with the cost burden of Orange County's local option transportation sales tax. We use Consumer

Transportation Research Part D, Jan 1, 2008

Large cities in the United States face multiple challenges in meeting federal air quality standar... more Large cities in the United States face multiple challenges in meeting federal air quality standards. One difficulty arises from the uncertainties in evaluating traffic-related air pollution, especially the formation of secondary pollutants such as ozone and some particulate matter. Current air quality models are not well-suited to evaluate the impact of a short-term traffic change on air quality. Using regional traffic and ambient air quality data from Southern California, we examine the impact of a two-day freeway closure on traffic and several criteria air pollutants (CO, NO2, O3, PM10, PM2.5). The results indicate that regional traffic decreased about 14% on average during the closure. Daily average PM2.5 levels decreased by about 32%, and daily 8-hour maximum ozone levels by about 16%. However, the daily 1-hour maximum NO2 concentration was higher at some sites during the closure. Despite the mixed results with NO2, this study provides empirical evidence to support traffic reduction as an effective strategy to address chronic air pollution problems, especially with regard to ozone, in Southern California.

The transportation sector poses major problems for ecology. Of greatest concern is motorized tran... more The transportation sector poses major problems for ecology. Of greatest concern is motorized transport such as cars, trucks, and airplanes. These activities consume about 61.5% of all the oil used each year on the planet; the largest share of that goes to passenger mobility, or cars (Rodrigue et al. 2013). Motorized transport accounts for roughly a quarter of global carbon monoxide (related to climate change emissions (OECD IEA 2009). The human health effects of road transport (both freight and cars) account for nearly $1 trillion in human health costs globally in 2010 (OECD 2014). Vehicular crashes cause 1.24 million deaths worldwide, while an additional 20-50 million are injured. Road crashes are the leading cause of death among young people ages 15-29, and the second leading cause of death worldwide among young people ages 5-14.

Transit advocates have high hopes for what transit can accomplish. As a result, most writing on t... more Transit advocates have high hopes for what transit can accomplish. As a result, most writing on transit lauds its potential benefits: Transit cleans up the air! It alleviates congestion! It raises property values! It revitalizes retail! It combats global warming! It makes people thinner! But transit can do few of those wonderful things if it does not first serve passengers, and high-quality passenger service requires both vision and prudent management. Transit service quality depends on many factors, including service frequencies, information, geographic placement, security, driver courtesy, station design, fares, and many other factors. Does a train that comes every 10 minutes provide better service than a bus that comes every 5 minutes, simply because the former is a train and the latter a bus? Some argue yes; others argue no. Should transit operators try to serve every far-flung suburb in a region, or should cities focus on small, geographically limited networks surrounding particular activity centers, like downtown? Again, good arguments appear on both sides. This chapter presents an introduction to what transit is, how it works, and the dilemmas that transit operators face as they both navigate and shape urban geographies. We shall assume throughout that transit is important to cities, thus leaving aside advocacy in favor of exploring the field's many challenges.

Computer-Aided Civil and Infrastructure Engineering , 2014

"Household members tend to evacuate as a unit. However, most engineering-based evacuation mod- el... more "Household members tend to evacuate as a unit. However, most engineering-based evacuation mod- els treat evacuees as independent and separate enti- ties, and overlook the interactions among household members during an evacuation (i.e., gathering chil- dren/spouses or uniting with other family members at home). The omission of these behaviors leads to im- precise modeling of evacuation situations. Additionally, transportation mode choice in a no-notice evacuation has been seldom investigated. We present a framework to in- corporate both household-gathering behavior and mode choice in an emergency into an evacuation model to ex- amine the effects of these two issues on evacuation ef- ficiency and network performance. The framework was tested in the Chicago metropolitan region for two hypo- thetical incidents with evacuation radii 5 and 25 miles. Models that omit gathering behavior yield dangerously optimistic evacuation times and network congestion lev- els compared to models that include family interactions. These optimistic estimates are significant for a large-scale evacuation—the reduction in the number of evacuees who can reach safe zones in a certain time threshold is nearly 50% between the gathering and no-gathering models. Gathering behavior could also cause distinct ef- fects on network performance for inner and outer ar- eas, the break point of which may be where severe bot- tlenecks are located. In this study, average travel speed
*To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: murraytu @vt.edu.
⃝C 2013 Computer-Aided Civil and Infrastructure Engineering. DOI: 10.1111/mice.12008
increases on the overall network within 15 miles of the incident location (where downtown Chicago is located), but decreases outside the 15-mile radius. These results would be completely overlooked without incorporating the gathering behavior yet are critical for evacuation management.
"

Transport Policy, 2012

Research on environmental justice and social inclusion suggests that high-income wage earners may... more Research on environmental justice and social inclusion suggests that high-income wage earners may have better job access due to their greater choices in both housing and transportation markets. This study compares the jobs/housing balance and mode choice of different groups of employees of a large employer (27,113 employees) and those of the ‘‘reference groups’’ from comparable employees working for smaller employers in Los Angeles. Based on spatial and statistical analyses, this paper finds the following:
a) Across all employee groups, a better jobs/housing balance was accompanied by higher income, as was likelihood to patronize Travel Demand Management (TDM) programs.
b) Employees from the large employer had more options for carpooling and thus drove alone less, even after controlling overall housing stock, residential location, annual income, and/or commute time.
c) Across all employee groups, good jobs/housing balance did not necessarily bring about green mode
choice.
d) Comprehensive TDM measures by the large employer significantly reduced employees’ dependence
on driving, even in a region where autocommuting dominates. However, these measures were
costly to implement.
e) Different employee groups favor different TDM programs, and the patterns are marked by income.
The above findings suggest that shared or consolidated TDM and housing programs, which pool
smaller employers, might better promote green mode choice. Participating employers may also negotiate better deals for program implementation when these programs involve third-party transit agencies and contractors.

Journal of Transportation Safety and Security, 2012

In no-notice events, adults must decide whether and how to gather household dependents. This arti... more In no-notice events, adults must decide whether and how to gather household dependents. This article examines how effectively households plan their evacuation logistics for a daytime event in a multimodal network and how these plans match the outcomes of a nonlinear integer optimization approach that simultaneously determines optimal meeting locations, final destinations, and family member pickup assignment and sequencing. The model outcomes are compared to information from 59 in-depth interviews. Households largely assign emergency-gathering activities to the parent normally responsible for child-related travel and prefer to meet at home; these decisions are optimal only in some cases. The authors also identify the sensitivity of the optimized logistics to the time adults spend at pickup locations gathering their dependents and “break-even” points where a combination of walking and trains become competitive with personal vehicles. For some households, the additional travel time to make these modes competitive is fewer than 2 h, which is not necessarily an unexpected delay during evacuations. Thus, emergency management agencies should continue to include transit agencies in their planning process and ensure that employees are available to provide services for cases where severe congestion is encountered, and not just for socioeconomically vulnerable populations.

J. Urban Planning and Development , 2011

Transportation Research Part A, 2012

In a no-notice disaster (e.g., nuclear explosion, terrorist attack, or hazardous materials releas... more In a no-notice disaster (e.g., nuclear explosion, terrorist attack, or hazardous materials release), an evacuation may start immediately after the disaster strikes. When a no-notice evacuation occurs during the daytime, household members are scattered throughout the regional network, and some family members (e.g., children) may need to be picked up. This household pick-up and gathering behavior was seldom investigated in previous work due to insufficient data; this gap in our understanding about who within families handles child- gathering is addressed here. Three hundred fifteen interviews were conducted in the Chi- cago metropolitan area to ascertain how respondents planned their response to hypothet- ical no-notice emergency evacuation orders. This paper presents the influencing factors that affect household pick-up and gathering behavior/expectations and the logistic regres- sion models developed to predict the probability that parents pick up a child in three sit- uations: a normal weekday and two hypothetical emergency scenarios. The results showed that both mothers and fathers were more likely to pick up a child under emergency condi- tions than they were on a normal weekday. For a normal weekday, increasing the distance between parents and children decreased the probability of parents picking up children; in other words, the farther parents are from their children, the less likely they will pick them up. In an emergency, effects of distance on pick-up behavior were significant for women, but not significant for men; that is, increasing the distance between parents and children decreased the probability that mothers pick up a child, but had a less significant effect on the fathers’ probability. Another significant factor affecting child pick-up behavior/expec- tations was household income when controlling for distance. The results of this study con- firm that parents expect to gather children under emergency conditions, which needs to be accounted for in evacuation planning; failure to do so could cause difficulties in executing the pick-ups, lead to considerable queuing and rerouting, and extend the time citizens are exposed to high levels of risk.

Journal of the American Planning Association, Jan 1, 2010

Problem: Recently, public health researchers have argued that infill development and sprawl reduc... more Problem: Recently, public health researchers have argued that infill development and sprawl reduction may improve respiratory outcomes for urban residents, largely by reducing vehicle travel and its attendant mobile-source emissions. But infill can also increase the number of residents exposed to poor air quality within central cities. Aside from emissions studies, planners have little information on the connections between urban form, ambient pollutant levels, and human exposures or how infill changes these. Purpose: We examined neighborhood exposures in 80 metropolitan areas in the United States to address whether neighborhood-level air quality outcomes are better in compact regions than in sprawled regions. Methods: We used multilevel regression models to find the empirical relationship between a measure of regional urban form and neighborhood air quality outcomes. Results and conclusions: Ozone concentrations are significantly lower in compact regions, but ozone exposures in neighborhoods are higher in compact regions. Fine particulate concentrations do not correlate significantly with regional compactness, but fine particulate exposures in neighborhoods are also higher in compact regions. Exposures to both ozone and fine particulates are also higher in neighborhoods with high proportions of African Americans, Asian ethnic minorities, and poor households.

Collaborative governance in the United States and Korea / edited by Yong-Duck Jung, Daniel A. Mazmanian and Shui-Yan Tang. , 2009

Environmental justice concerns, in part, the maldistribution of both environmental hazards and nu... more Environmental justice concerns, in part, the maldistribution of both environmental hazards and nuisances such that impoverished communities, particularly impoverished communities of color, contend with the effects of industry more so than those who are affluent. As communities of color have organized to confront this problem, their claims of injustice have revealed significant issues across all sectors of environmental governance, both in the U.S. and internationally, and reflect failures of representative institutions in urban land management. In this manuscript, we derive a socio-spatial approach to management of facility siting decisions based on the research in environmental justice. Then we discuss some reforms to facility siting that have been proposed and implemented in the US, Canada, and western Europe over the course of three decades and how these reforms can improve the legitimacy of facility siting decisions.

Transportation , Jan 1, 2008

Those who oppose congestion pricing on roads frequently argue that low-income, urban residents wi... more Those who oppose congestion pricing on roads frequently argue that low-income, urban residents will suffer disproportionately if tolled to use congested freeways, either through higher out-of-pocket costs for travel and/or by diverting, delaying, or discontinuing trips. Too often, however, this assertion is made in the abstract, without considering 1) how much impoverished residents currently pay for transportation through fuel and sales taxes or 2) how much impoverished residents would pay for highway infrastructure under an alternative revenuegenerating schema, such as an increased sales tax. And while increased local sales taxes are among the faster growing forms of transportation revenues in the U.S., they are rarely criticized on social equity grounds. In this paper, we compare the cost burden of an existing congestionpriced high-occupancy/toll facility on State Route 91 (SR91) in Orange County, California, with the cost burden of Orange County's local option transportation sales tax. We use Consumer

Transportation Research Part D, Jan 1, 2008

Transportation Research Part A , 2005

Journal of Planning Literature, Jan 1, 2004

Belief that transportation investment and operations have caused environmental damage in poor and... more Belief that transportation investment and operations have caused environmental damage in poor and minority commu- nities to benefit the more affluent has prompted planning agencies to craft policies aimed at promoting environmental justice. Yet, we have only scattered evidence about the distri- bution of the costs and benefits derived from transportation policy, investment, and planning. This article creates a framework based in distributive justice for categorizing the existing research into cost-based and benefit-based claims of injustice. The authors go on to synthesize the cost-based research, which measures the distribution of pollution and hazards from transportation. From this survey, myriad research opportunities emerge.

Transportation, Jan 1, 2008

Those who oppose tolls and other forms of road pricing argue that low-income, urban residents wil... more Those who oppose tolls and other forms of road pricing argue that low-income, urban residents will suffer if they must pay to use congested freeways. This contention, however, fails to consider (1) how much low-income residents already pay for transportation in taxes and fees, or (2) how much residents would pay for highway infrastructure under an alternative revenue-generating scheme, such as a sales tax. This paper compares the cost burden of a value-priced road, State Route 91 (SR91) in Orange County, California with the cost burden under Orange County’s local option transportation sales tax, Measure M. We find that although the sales tax spreads the costs of transportation facilities across a large number of people inside and outside Orange County, it redistributes about 3million(USD)inrevenuesfromlessaffluentresidentstothosewithhigherincomes.TheentireMeasureMprogramredistributesanestimated3 million (USD) in revenues from less affluent residents to those with higher incomes. The entire Measure M program redistributes an estimated 3million(USD)inrevenuesfromlessaffluentresidentstothosewithhigherincomes.TheentireMeasureMprogramredistributesanestimated26 million from low-income residents to the more affluent. Low-income drivers as individuals save substantially if they do not have to pay tolls, but as a group low-income residents, on average, pay more out-of-pocket with sales taxes.

Urban Studies, 2006

Environmental justice, a term that incorporates “environmental racism” and “environmental classis... more Environmental justice, a term that incorporates “environmental racism” and “environmental classism,” captures the idea that different racial and socio-economic groups experience differential access to environmental quality. This article explores what previous studies have established about environmental justice as a city-based phenomenon and critiques the focus and methodologies of those efforts within the larger context of urban inquiry. After assaying the concepts that have guided most of the research, we consider the arguments that analysts have offered for the causes of environmental injustice. Our review of the literature reveals significant problems of focus, measurement, specification, and research design. Nonetheless, environmental justice research raises critical concerns about how citizens should be treated and what constitutes a just distribution of collective urban goods in a democratic society. In our view, due consideration of these matters can enlighten urban and environmental inquiry and policy.

Transport Policy, Jan 1, 2005

Environment and Planning B, 2013

Transportation Research Part A: Policy and …, Jan 1, 2003

Journal of Policy Analysis and Management

Journal of the American Planning Association, Jan 1, 2002

Transportation Policy Research, Jan 1, 1997

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... Medical Physics Insurance CALIFORNIA TRANSPORTATION NEEDS ASSESSMENT: The Transportation Barr... more ... Medical Physics Insurance CALIFORNIA TRANSPORTATION NEEDS ASSESSMENT: The Transportation Barriers and Needs of Welfare Recipients and Low-Wage Workers May 30, 2003 Prepared by: Evelyn Blumenberg, Doug Miller, Mark Garrett, Lisa Schweitzer Karen Kitsis ...