Nola Agha | University of San Francisco (original) (raw)
Papers by Nola Agha
Journal of Sports Economics, 2024
Previous studies of college athlete compensation have generally focused on the "revenue sports" o... more Previous studies of college athlete compensation have generally focused on the "revenue sports" of football and men's basketball. Hence, wage exploitation is often considered a "man's game." In the 50 years since Title IX, many women's college sports have reported millions of dollars in revenue, suggesting wage exploitation is possible in college softball. Data on 19,760 athletes from 294 universities from 2012-2021, combined with two different sources of athletic revenue reach the same conclusion: wage exploitation exists in college softball. Furthermore, thousands of players generate more revenue in college than the wages they are likely to earn playing professional softball.
Journal of Sports Economics, 2024
This article uses data from the 1997-2022 seasons to investigate the role of bias in the distribu... more This article uses data from the 1997-2022 seasons to investigate the role of bias in the distribution of playing time in the WNBA. We evaluate national origin, a fixed and objective measure, and improve upon past uses of subjective, perception-based measures of race by using a more objective measure of skin tone. More specifically, via a fixed-effect estimation of 2,949 WNBA player-year combinations we find no evidence that the national origin of either players or coaches is related to the provision of playing time. Similarly, skin tone of players or coaches (n=893), either alone or in combination with national origin, shows no robust significance. Evidence of national origin bias has previously been reported in professional men's basketball leagues in the U.S., Spain, and China. The WNBA may be demographically similar to the NBA, but it is culturally different and we find no evidence of employer discrimination.
Sport Marketing Quarterly, 2024
Guided by network theory, the purpose of this paper is to explore the consumption networks of Wom... more Guided by network theory, the purpose of this paper is to explore the consumption networks of Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA) fans. Through an egocentric network analysis, the authors utilize hierarchical linear modeling to examine the strength of consumption ties among WNBA fans during the 2019 season. Initial results revealed an unexpected finding--the presence of participants who reported having no fan-to-fan ties, whom we term IsoFans. A second sample of men's basketball fans was then collected to serve as a comparative confirmation of the unexpected result, whereby IsoFans occurred in the men's sport sample at a much lower rate. In the third step of the study, the authors examine the differences between WNBA fans consuming in isolation, IsoFans, and WNBA fans consuming with alters, whom we call Social Fans. Results from the hierarchical linear modeling of Social Fans revealed that attributes of both ego (i.e., focal fan) and alter (i.e., individual with whom ego shares a tie) affect the strength of fan-to-fan ties within the women's sport context.
International Journal of Sport Finance, 2023
There is considerable discussion regarding interest in women's basketball, with critics often com... more There is considerable discussion regarding interest in women's basketball, with critics often comparing the WNBA and NBA. This comparison is problematic because the WNBA is in an early growth phase while the NBA organizational life cycle position is far more mature. We investigate whether the demand features of early growth leagues are similar by comparing attendance data from the 8th-21st seasons of the WNBA with attendance from the same point in NBA history and the current NBA. We find the factors that affect demand in the WNBA are uniquely different than the NBA in both size and significance in either period, thus, it is inappropriate to compare the two leagues.
The Economic Impact of Sports Facilities, Franchises, and Events: Contributions in Honor of Robert Baade, 2023
There are three problems with economic impact. First, it is an exceptionally complicated estimati... more There are three problems with economic impact. First, it is an exceptionally complicated estimation problem full of assumptions and fraught with errors. Second, despite this weakness, it is treated as the de facto standard report for event bidders and stadium proponents. This has led to ubiquitous, unchallenged reporting of sports impact as unequivocally positive. Finally, as a result, the public now has an unwavering belief in the existence of positive economic impact from sports. Evidence from a longitudinal study of Super Bowl 50 supports this conclusion. If it is not possible to change the public belief in the meaning or usefulness of economic impact, the solution is to reframe the conversation in terms of financial and redistributive analysis.
Journal of Sports Economics, 2021
Professional teams and leagues claim new stadiums lead to economic development. To test this, we ... more Professional teams and leagues claim new stadiums lead to economic development. To test this, we utilize data from the Census Bureau on net establishment and employment changes across 871 Metropolitan and Micropolitan Statistical Areas from 2004 to 2012. Difference-in-differences and panel data techniques allow for a cross-sectional and time series comparison for both teams and new stadia in both professional and development leagues. Nearly all results from hundreds of models are insignificantly different from zero. Results from between- and random-effects models suggest that teams move into markets that already have higher employment and establishment growth. (JEL R58, H71, L83, Z28)
The SAGE Handbook of Sports Economics, 2019
Agha and Taks define minor sport events and teams and explain the different approaches to measuri... more Agha and Taks define minor sport events and teams and explain the different approaches to measuring impact. They present theoretical models and provide empirical examples of economic impact of minor sport events and leagues. They end the chapter with recommendations for future research.
Overview: Zimbalist and Agha examine the economic impact of sports stadiums, discussing considera... more Overview: Zimbalist and Agha examine the economic impact of sports stadiums, discussing considerations related to facility construction and use, along with important issues associated with public financing, ancillary development, and impact studies. In December 2017, the US Congress passed a major piece of tax reform legislation. In the House of Representatives version of the bill there was a provision that would prohibit cities from issuing tax-exempt bonds to finance new stadiums for professional sports teams. On 16 December, Major League Baseball (MLB) sent around a memo to the team owners that, in part, read as follows: MLB engaged in a substantial lobbying effort to keep the House provision out of both the Senate bill and the final agreement. Due in very large part to Baseball's efforts, which included numerous calls by our Owners to House and Senate Leadership, key members of the Senate Finance and House Ways and Means Committees, and others, the House provision was removed from the final legislation, and the tax exemption for stadium bonds is preserved.
Purpose -The purpose of this paper is to understand why some sports show a positive economic impa... more Purpose -The purpose of this paper is to understand why some sports show a positive economic impact and other sports do not, and to identify a common set of explanatory factors explaining the differences. Design/methodology/approach -This explanatory research reviews the economic impact literature to identify the underlying conditions that would theoretically allow any sport, large or small, to generate positive economic effects. Findings -Nine conditions are identified that, when present, could allow a community to experience a positive economic impact from a team or stadium. These are then used to explain the discrepancy in known empirical outcomes in major and minor league baseball (MiLB). It appears as if major league teams are more likely to violate the conditions than minor league teams. This research finds theoretical support for previous suggestions that smaller teams and events may be beneficial to local economies. In doing so, it also explains previous empirical results that found some MiLB classifications are associated with positive gains in per capita income. Practical implications -Stakeholders can use the nine conditions to understand expected economic impact of their relevant sports. This research provides a comprehensive guide to understanding when economic impact can be positive. Social implications -This research helps explain some of the existing controversy regarding economic impact analysis. Originality/value -It is the first research to help provide a pre-set of conditions that can help predict whether positive economic impact will occur for specific sports teams or stadium projects.
This explanatory research reviews the economic impact literature to identify the conditions that ... more This explanatory research reviews the economic impact literature to identify the conditions that would theoretically allow any sport, large or small, to generate positive economic effects. Nine conditions are identified that, when present, could allow a community to experience a positive economic impact from a team or stadium. The nine conditions are then used to explain the discrepancy in known empirical outcomes in Major and Minor League Baseball. It appears as if major league teams are more likely to violate the conditions while minor league teams are not. This research finds theoretical support for previous suggestions that smaller teams and events may be beneficial to local economies. In doing so, it also explains previous empirical results that found some minor league baseball classifications are associated with positive gains in per capita income.
Journal of Sport Management, 2018
The role of residents in the calculation of economic impact remains a point of contention. It is ... more The role of residents in the calculation of economic impact remains a point of contention. It is unclear if changes in resident spending caused by an event contribute positively, negatively, or not at all. Building on previous theory we develop a comprehensive model that explains all 72 possible behaviors of residents based on changes in (a) spending, (b) multiplier, (c) timing of expenditures, and (d) geographic location of spending. Applying the model to Super Bowl 50 indicates that few residents were affected, positive and negative effects were relatively equivalent, thus their overall impact is negligible. This leaves practitioners the option to engage in the challenging process of gathering data on all four variables on all residents or to revert back to the old model of entirely excluding residents from economic impact. From a theoretical perspective, there is a pressing need to properly conceptualize the time variable in economic impact studies.
This article uses an extensive unique data set to investigate the efficiency of government subsid... more This article uses an extensive unique data set to investigate the efficiency of government subsides for minor league baseball teams and stadiums by measuring pecuniary gains in a local economy. Specifically, a dynamic panel data model incor-porating 238 Metropolitan Statistical Areas (MSAs) that hosted affiliated or inde-pendent minor league teams between 1985 and 2006 shows that AAA teams, Aþ teams, AA stadiums, and rookie stadiums are all associated with significant positive effects on the change in local per capita income. The presence of positive effects is strikingly different from decades of nonpositive results at the major league level.
Journal of Sports Economics
This article uses an extensive unique data set to investigate the efficiency of government subsid... more This article uses an extensive unique data set to investigate the efficiency of government subsides for minor league baseball teams and stadiums by measuring pecuniary gains in a local economy. Specifically, a dynamic panel data model incorporating
238 Metropolitan Statistical Areas (MSAs) that hosted affiliated or independent minor league teams between 1985 and 2006 shows that AAA teams, A+ teams, AA stadiums, and rookie stadiums are all associated with significant positive effects on the change in local per capita income. The presence of positive effects is
strikingly different from decades of nonpositive results at the major league level.
AARN: Economic Systems (Sub-Topic), 2015
In response to the increasing debate on the relative worth of small events compared to large even... more In response to the increasing debate on the relative worth of small events compared to large events, we create a theoretical model to determine whether smaller events are more likely to create positive economic impact. First, event size and city size are rede fined as continuums of resources. The concepts of event resource demand (ERD) and city resource supply (CRS) are introduced, allowing for a joint analysis of supply and demand. When local economic conditions are brought into the analysis, the frame work determines how a city resource deficiency or surplus affects the economic impact of an event. This resource-based approach assists public officials and event organizers in making more rational decisions for hosting events when they pursue positive economic impacts. Specifically, we find small events have a higher potential for positive economic impact and hosting multiple smaller-sized events is a better strategy than hosting a big event.
In response to the increasing debate on the relative worth of small events compared to large even... more In response to the increasing debate on the relative worth of small events compared to large events, we create a theoretical model to determine whether smaller events are more likely to create positive economic impact. First, event size and city size are redefined as continuums of resources allowing for a joint analysis of supply and demand. When local economic conditions are brought into the analysis, we demonstrate that: (1) no city has the necessary resources to host a mega-event and will always incur costs to obtain missing resources; (2) events with low resource demands have higher potential for positive economic impact compared to events with larger demands; and, (3) events with low resource demands have positive impacts in many more cities than events with larger demands. This framework provides academicians and practitioners a tool to determine how a city resource deficiency or surplus affects the economic impact of an event.
This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the College of Arts and Sciences at US... more This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the College of Arts and Sciences at USF Scholarship Repository. It has been accepted for
Contemporary Economic Policy
This research utilizes a compensating differential framework to measure the social benefits of mi... more This research utilizes a compensating differential framework to measure the social benefits of minor league baseball teams. Consistent with findings at the major league level, individual housing observations from 138 metropolitan areas between 1993 and 2005 show that affiliated teams are associated with a significant 6 to 8% increase in rents in mid-sized markets ranging from 0.4 to 1.4 million people. On the other hand, independent teams and stadiums are associated with insignificant effects on rents. The positive effect of affiliated minor league teams suggests they are a valuable urban amenity that can contribute to local quality of life. (JEL H23, H41, H71, R50, and L83)
The professionalisation of women’s sport, 2021
This chapter undertakes a comparison of pay in women's basketball with an emphasis on its incepti... more This chapter undertakes a comparison of pay in women's basketball with an emphasis on its inception in North America. Through a quantitative approach, we find players are undervalued in the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA) compared to men's basketball, men's soccer, and women's basketball in Europe and Asia. By comparing leagues at the same period in their life cycles, we show that women are underpaid even after accounting for the age of the league. The relatively low pay in the WNBA, even when compared to the identical formative time period in the men's professional league, led 48% of American WNBA players to seek employment in basketball leagues in Europe and Asia in 2019. In these leagues, players receive much higher salaries. We explain these wage inequities based on business structure and economic theory. In sum, both the WNBA and National Basketball Association (NBA) are primarily profit-maximising leagues, but NBA players have always been paid a higher percentage of league revenues than the women of the WNBA. This was even true when the NBA had a much lower level of revenue. Salaries in the WNBA are then further depressed by a league that seems to prioritise short-run profit maximisation over long-run investment, thus continuing to delegitimise the WNBA. Ultimately, the constraints to pay derive from not only gendered systems but also the structure of profit-maximising leagues and teams in the United States.
Journal of Sports Economics, 2024
Previous studies of college athlete compensation have generally focused on the "revenue sports" o... more Previous studies of college athlete compensation have generally focused on the "revenue sports" of football and men's basketball. Hence, wage exploitation is often considered a "man's game." In the 50 years since Title IX, many women's college sports have reported millions of dollars in revenue, suggesting wage exploitation is possible in college softball. Data on 19,760 athletes from 294 universities from 2012-2021, combined with two different sources of athletic revenue reach the same conclusion: wage exploitation exists in college softball. Furthermore, thousands of players generate more revenue in college than the wages they are likely to earn playing professional softball.
Journal of Sports Economics, 2024
This article uses data from the 1997-2022 seasons to investigate the role of bias in the distribu... more This article uses data from the 1997-2022 seasons to investigate the role of bias in the distribution of playing time in the WNBA. We evaluate national origin, a fixed and objective measure, and improve upon past uses of subjective, perception-based measures of race by using a more objective measure of skin tone. More specifically, via a fixed-effect estimation of 2,949 WNBA player-year combinations we find no evidence that the national origin of either players or coaches is related to the provision of playing time. Similarly, skin tone of players or coaches (n=893), either alone or in combination with national origin, shows no robust significance. Evidence of national origin bias has previously been reported in professional men's basketball leagues in the U.S., Spain, and China. The WNBA may be demographically similar to the NBA, but it is culturally different and we find no evidence of employer discrimination.
Sport Marketing Quarterly, 2024
Guided by network theory, the purpose of this paper is to explore the consumption networks of Wom... more Guided by network theory, the purpose of this paper is to explore the consumption networks of Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA) fans. Through an egocentric network analysis, the authors utilize hierarchical linear modeling to examine the strength of consumption ties among WNBA fans during the 2019 season. Initial results revealed an unexpected finding--the presence of participants who reported having no fan-to-fan ties, whom we term IsoFans. A second sample of men's basketball fans was then collected to serve as a comparative confirmation of the unexpected result, whereby IsoFans occurred in the men's sport sample at a much lower rate. In the third step of the study, the authors examine the differences between WNBA fans consuming in isolation, IsoFans, and WNBA fans consuming with alters, whom we call Social Fans. Results from the hierarchical linear modeling of Social Fans revealed that attributes of both ego (i.e., focal fan) and alter (i.e., individual with whom ego shares a tie) affect the strength of fan-to-fan ties within the women's sport context.
International Journal of Sport Finance, 2023
There is considerable discussion regarding interest in women's basketball, with critics often com... more There is considerable discussion regarding interest in women's basketball, with critics often comparing the WNBA and NBA. This comparison is problematic because the WNBA is in an early growth phase while the NBA organizational life cycle position is far more mature. We investigate whether the demand features of early growth leagues are similar by comparing attendance data from the 8th-21st seasons of the WNBA with attendance from the same point in NBA history and the current NBA. We find the factors that affect demand in the WNBA are uniquely different than the NBA in both size and significance in either period, thus, it is inappropriate to compare the two leagues.
The Economic Impact of Sports Facilities, Franchises, and Events: Contributions in Honor of Robert Baade, 2023
There are three problems with economic impact. First, it is an exceptionally complicated estimati... more There are three problems with economic impact. First, it is an exceptionally complicated estimation problem full of assumptions and fraught with errors. Second, despite this weakness, it is treated as the de facto standard report for event bidders and stadium proponents. This has led to ubiquitous, unchallenged reporting of sports impact as unequivocally positive. Finally, as a result, the public now has an unwavering belief in the existence of positive economic impact from sports. Evidence from a longitudinal study of Super Bowl 50 supports this conclusion. If it is not possible to change the public belief in the meaning or usefulness of economic impact, the solution is to reframe the conversation in terms of financial and redistributive analysis.
Journal of Sports Economics, 2021
Professional teams and leagues claim new stadiums lead to economic development. To test this, we ... more Professional teams and leagues claim new stadiums lead to economic development. To test this, we utilize data from the Census Bureau on net establishment and employment changes across 871 Metropolitan and Micropolitan Statistical Areas from 2004 to 2012. Difference-in-differences and panel data techniques allow for a cross-sectional and time series comparison for both teams and new stadia in both professional and development leagues. Nearly all results from hundreds of models are insignificantly different from zero. Results from between- and random-effects models suggest that teams move into markets that already have higher employment and establishment growth. (JEL R58, H71, L83, Z28)
The SAGE Handbook of Sports Economics, 2019
Agha and Taks define minor sport events and teams and explain the different approaches to measuri... more Agha and Taks define minor sport events and teams and explain the different approaches to measuring impact. They present theoretical models and provide empirical examples of economic impact of minor sport events and leagues. They end the chapter with recommendations for future research.
Overview: Zimbalist and Agha examine the economic impact of sports stadiums, discussing considera... more Overview: Zimbalist and Agha examine the economic impact of sports stadiums, discussing considerations related to facility construction and use, along with important issues associated with public financing, ancillary development, and impact studies. In December 2017, the US Congress passed a major piece of tax reform legislation. In the House of Representatives version of the bill there was a provision that would prohibit cities from issuing tax-exempt bonds to finance new stadiums for professional sports teams. On 16 December, Major League Baseball (MLB) sent around a memo to the team owners that, in part, read as follows: MLB engaged in a substantial lobbying effort to keep the House provision out of both the Senate bill and the final agreement. Due in very large part to Baseball's efforts, which included numerous calls by our Owners to House and Senate Leadership, key members of the Senate Finance and House Ways and Means Committees, and others, the House provision was removed from the final legislation, and the tax exemption for stadium bonds is preserved.
Purpose -The purpose of this paper is to understand why some sports show a positive economic impa... more Purpose -The purpose of this paper is to understand why some sports show a positive economic impact and other sports do not, and to identify a common set of explanatory factors explaining the differences. Design/methodology/approach -This explanatory research reviews the economic impact literature to identify the underlying conditions that would theoretically allow any sport, large or small, to generate positive economic effects. Findings -Nine conditions are identified that, when present, could allow a community to experience a positive economic impact from a team or stadium. These are then used to explain the discrepancy in known empirical outcomes in major and minor league baseball (MiLB). It appears as if major league teams are more likely to violate the conditions than minor league teams. This research finds theoretical support for previous suggestions that smaller teams and events may be beneficial to local economies. In doing so, it also explains previous empirical results that found some MiLB classifications are associated with positive gains in per capita income. Practical implications -Stakeholders can use the nine conditions to understand expected economic impact of their relevant sports. This research provides a comprehensive guide to understanding when economic impact can be positive. Social implications -This research helps explain some of the existing controversy regarding economic impact analysis. Originality/value -It is the first research to help provide a pre-set of conditions that can help predict whether positive economic impact will occur for specific sports teams or stadium projects.
This explanatory research reviews the economic impact literature to identify the conditions that ... more This explanatory research reviews the economic impact literature to identify the conditions that would theoretically allow any sport, large or small, to generate positive economic effects. Nine conditions are identified that, when present, could allow a community to experience a positive economic impact from a team or stadium. The nine conditions are then used to explain the discrepancy in known empirical outcomes in Major and Minor League Baseball. It appears as if major league teams are more likely to violate the conditions while minor league teams are not. This research finds theoretical support for previous suggestions that smaller teams and events may be beneficial to local economies. In doing so, it also explains previous empirical results that found some minor league baseball classifications are associated with positive gains in per capita income.
Journal of Sport Management, 2018
The role of residents in the calculation of economic impact remains a point of contention. It is ... more The role of residents in the calculation of economic impact remains a point of contention. It is unclear if changes in resident spending caused by an event contribute positively, negatively, or not at all. Building on previous theory we develop a comprehensive model that explains all 72 possible behaviors of residents based on changes in (a) spending, (b) multiplier, (c) timing of expenditures, and (d) geographic location of spending. Applying the model to Super Bowl 50 indicates that few residents were affected, positive and negative effects were relatively equivalent, thus their overall impact is negligible. This leaves practitioners the option to engage in the challenging process of gathering data on all four variables on all residents or to revert back to the old model of entirely excluding residents from economic impact. From a theoretical perspective, there is a pressing need to properly conceptualize the time variable in economic impact studies.
This article uses an extensive unique data set to investigate the efficiency of government subsid... more This article uses an extensive unique data set to investigate the efficiency of government subsides for minor league baseball teams and stadiums by measuring pecuniary gains in a local economy. Specifically, a dynamic panel data model incor-porating 238 Metropolitan Statistical Areas (MSAs) that hosted affiliated or inde-pendent minor league teams between 1985 and 2006 shows that AAA teams, Aþ teams, AA stadiums, and rookie stadiums are all associated with significant positive effects on the change in local per capita income. The presence of positive effects is strikingly different from decades of nonpositive results at the major league level.
Journal of Sports Economics
This article uses an extensive unique data set to investigate the efficiency of government subsid... more This article uses an extensive unique data set to investigate the efficiency of government subsides for minor league baseball teams and stadiums by measuring pecuniary gains in a local economy. Specifically, a dynamic panel data model incorporating
238 Metropolitan Statistical Areas (MSAs) that hosted affiliated or independent minor league teams between 1985 and 2006 shows that AAA teams, A+ teams, AA stadiums, and rookie stadiums are all associated with significant positive effects on the change in local per capita income. The presence of positive effects is
strikingly different from decades of nonpositive results at the major league level.
AARN: Economic Systems (Sub-Topic), 2015
In response to the increasing debate on the relative worth of small events compared to large even... more In response to the increasing debate on the relative worth of small events compared to large events, we create a theoretical model to determine whether smaller events are more likely to create positive economic impact. First, event size and city size are rede fined as continuums of resources. The concepts of event resource demand (ERD) and city resource supply (CRS) are introduced, allowing for a joint analysis of supply and demand. When local economic conditions are brought into the analysis, the frame work determines how a city resource deficiency or surplus affects the economic impact of an event. This resource-based approach assists public officials and event organizers in making more rational decisions for hosting events when they pursue positive economic impacts. Specifically, we find small events have a higher potential for positive economic impact and hosting multiple smaller-sized events is a better strategy than hosting a big event.
In response to the increasing debate on the relative worth of small events compared to large even... more In response to the increasing debate on the relative worth of small events compared to large events, we create a theoretical model to determine whether smaller events are more likely to create positive economic impact. First, event size and city size are redefined as continuums of resources allowing for a joint analysis of supply and demand. When local economic conditions are brought into the analysis, we demonstrate that: (1) no city has the necessary resources to host a mega-event and will always incur costs to obtain missing resources; (2) events with low resource demands have higher potential for positive economic impact compared to events with larger demands; and, (3) events with low resource demands have positive impacts in many more cities than events with larger demands. This framework provides academicians and practitioners a tool to determine how a city resource deficiency or surplus affects the economic impact of an event.
This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the College of Arts and Sciences at US... more This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the College of Arts and Sciences at USF Scholarship Repository. It has been accepted for
Contemporary Economic Policy
This research utilizes a compensating differential framework to measure the social benefits of mi... more This research utilizes a compensating differential framework to measure the social benefits of minor league baseball teams. Consistent with findings at the major league level, individual housing observations from 138 metropolitan areas between 1993 and 2005 show that affiliated teams are associated with a significant 6 to 8% increase in rents in mid-sized markets ranging from 0.4 to 1.4 million people. On the other hand, independent teams and stadiums are associated with insignificant effects on rents. The positive effect of affiliated minor league teams suggests they are a valuable urban amenity that can contribute to local quality of life. (JEL H23, H41, H71, R50, and L83)
The professionalisation of women’s sport, 2021
This chapter undertakes a comparison of pay in women's basketball with an emphasis on its incepti... more This chapter undertakes a comparison of pay in women's basketball with an emphasis on its inception in North America. Through a quantitative approach, we find players are undervalued in the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA) compared to men's basketball, men's soccer, and women's basketball in Europe and Asia. By comparing leagues at the same period in their life cycles, we show that women are underpaid even after accounting for the age of the league. The relatively low pay in the WNBA, even when compared to the identical formative time period in the men's professional league, led 48% of American WNBA players to seek employment in basketball leagues in Europe and Asia in 2019. In these leagues, players receive much higher salaries. We explain these wage inequities based on business structure and economic theory. In sum, both the WNBA and National Basketball Association (NBA) are primarily profit-maximising leagues, but NBA players have always been paid a higher percentage of league revenues than the women of the WNBA. This was even true when the NBA had a much lower level of revenue. Salaries in the WNBA are then further depressed by a league that seems to prioritise short-run profit maximisation over long-run investment, thus continuing to delegitimise the WNBA. Ultimately, the constraints to pay derive from not only gendered systems but also the structure of profit-maximising leagues and teams in the United States.
Considerable time has been spent on identifying the demand determinants in major league sports. ... more Considerable time has been spent on identifying the demand determinants in major league sports. Much less attention has focused on minor league baseball despite its unique business structure: with free inputs provided by strategic alliance partners, minor league teams rely more heavily on their home stadiums, promotions, local brand, and partnerships with Major League clubs to generate demand. This conceptual research first defines the characteristics of minor league baseball that make it unique from demand in Major League Baseball. Next, it discusses theoretical demand determinants and provides a review of empirical results. It concludes by identifying the problems in current MiLB demand modelling and offers suggestions for improvements and future research. (JEL L83, D11, Z21)
Case Studies in Sport Management
Laurie Spinks is the Director of Social Engagement at NBC Sports Bay Area. She has been instrumen... more Laurie Spinks is the Director of Social Engagement at NBC Sports Bay Area. She has been instrumental in developing strategies for social media platforms across a number of different sports, and must now develop a social media strategy which drives fans towards a new app. NBC Sports created the My Teams app to counter cord-cutting and allow sport fans to stream live games of their favorite local teams on their mobile devices. Prior to the launch of the app in the Bay Area, Spinks will meet with her team to formulate a social media strategy which supports the new app. This case explores some of the elements that contribute to the development of a social media marketing strategy for the NBC Sports My Teams app. In particular, the strategy focuses on targeting the San Francisco Bay Area sport audience by identifying and developing social media objectives, creating an audience profile for app usage, and implementing appropriate strategies to support objectives and attract the desired aud...
Learning outcomes Upon completion of this case the reader should be able to: • Identify the role ... more Learning outcomes Upon completion of this case the reader should be able to: • Identify the role of leadership in creating a shared vision. • Examine the core ideology and intended future components of an organisational vision. • Evaluate an organisation's strategy development process. • Develop an appreciation of the complexities involved in an organisation's strategic repositioning. Overview of case This case presents the strategic repositioning challenge faced by the Confederation of North American, Central American and Caribbean Association Football (CONCACAF) after a period of leadership and strategy instability. It reports the allegations and findings of misconduct, and discusses the steps taken by the new leadership to define a new mission and strategy.
Case Studies in Sport Management, 2014
Case Study: Bloomberg Sports uses sports analytics to create advanced decision tools for professi... more Case Study: Bloomberg Sports uses sports analytics to create advanced decision tools for professional teams and fantasy sports users. Their success in both the business and consumer markets stems from vital partnerships with Major League Baseball Advanced Media (MLBAM), Yahoo!, ESPN, and CBSSports. In a period of increased domestic competition, Bloomberg Sports is searching for the most appropriate international growth strategy. This expansion effort recently was aided by a new joint venture with IMG. By analyzing the market, industry, competitors, and products, important decisions can be made to help Bloomberg Sports expand and grow.
By Patrick Kealy, Yatin Shastri, Francisco Battistini, Tyler Durrell, Jeong Huh, and Nola Agha
Case Studies in Sport Management, 2014
Case Studies in Sport Management, 2015
Case Study: Experience, LLC is a start-up company that sells in-game seat upgrades during live s... more Case Study:
Experience, LLC is a start-up company that sells in-game seat upgrades during live sporting events using text messaging and cell phone apps. From a user standpoint, a small upgrade fee results in better seats and a better game experience. From a venue or team standpoint, Experience fills unused inventory resulting in increased revenues and more satisfied fans with higher repurchase intentions. Experience is looking to expand its services beyond single-game upgrades to a full-season ticket that is based on filling open, but previously sold, inventory. This case illustrates the forces at play in the ticketing industry, describes the features of each service, and provides an opportunity to decide on the expansion strategy for a fast-growing start-up company.
Case Studies in Sport Management, 2015