Margit Sutrop | University of Tartu (original) (raw)

Articles in Journals by Margit Sutrop

Challenges of Aligning AI with Human Values, 2000

As artificial intelligence (AI) systems are becoming increasingly autonomous and will soon be abl... more As artificial intelligence (AI) systems are becoming increasingly autonomous and will soon be able to make decisions on their own about what to do, AI researchers have started to talk about the need to align AI with human values. The AI 'value alignment problem' faces two kinds of challenges-a technical and a normative one-which are interrelated. The technical challenge deals with the question of how to encode human values in artificial intelligence. The normative challenge is associated with two questions: "Which values or whose values should artificial intelligence align with?" My concern is that AI developers underestimate the difficulty of answering the normative question. They hope that we can easily identify the purposes we really desire and that they can focus on the design of those objectives. But how are we to decide which objectives or values to induce in AI, given that there is a plurality of values and moral principles and that our everyday life is full of moral disagreements? In my paper I will show that although it is not realistic to reach an agreement on what we, humans, really want as people value different things and seek different ends, it may be possible to agree on what we do not want to happen, considering the possibility that intelligence, equal to our own, or even exceeding it, can be created. I will argue for pluralism (and not for relativism!) which is compatible with objectivism. In spite of the fact that there is no uniquely best solution to every moral problem, it is still possible to identify which answers are wrong. And this is where we should begin the value alignment of AI.

TRAMES, 2020, 24(74/69), 3, 295–314, 2020

We frequently find ourselves in intractable disagreements about the morality of abortion, euthana... more We frequently find ourselves in intractable disagreements about the morality of abortion, euthanasia, restrictions to freedom, or eating meat for fun. An adequate reaction to a disagreement requires knowing which type of disagreements we are confronted with. The main aim of my paper is to explain the source of moral disagreements and clarify their nature. I will argue that some moral disagreements are deep conceptual disagreements that similarly to disagreements in logic or ontology, are not resolvable, as the resolution of the disagreement requires the disputants to adopt perspectives that are conceptually unavailable to them. I will suggest four possible sources of moral disagreements: incommensurable fundamental values, different concepts of the good life, different motivating reasons and different concepts of morality.

Trames. A Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2020

This article provides an introduction to Estonian clinical ethics recommendations concerning the ... more This article provides an introduction to Estonian clinical ethics recommendations concerning the distribution of limited health care resources during the COVID-19 pandemic. We will give a short overview of the process of compiling the Estonian document, including stakeholder involvement, engagements with comparable international documents, main internal debates and lessons learned for the future.

Margit Sutrop, Adam Smith on sympathy and moral motivation, Acta Philosophica Fennica 83:143 - 168 , 2007

Margit Sutrop, Should we trust artificial intelligence? Trames : Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences, 23, 4, 499-522., 2019

Trust is believed to be a foundational cornerstone for artificial intelligence (AI). In April 201... more Trust is believed to be a foundational cornerstone for artificial intelligence (AI). In April 2019 the European Commission High Level Expert Group on AI adopted the Ethics Guidelines for Trustworthy AI, stressing that human beings will only be able to confidently and fully reap the benefits of AI if they can trust the technology. Trustworthy AI is defined as ethical, lawful and robust AI. Three things strike me about the EC Guidelines. Firstly, though building trust in AI seems to be a shared aim, it is not explicated what trust is, and how it can be built and maintained. Secondly, the Guidelines ignore the widespread distinction made in philosophical literature between trust and reliance. Thirdly, it is not clear how the values have been selected with which AI has to align and what would happen if they came into conflict. In this paper, I shall provide a conceptual analysis of trust in contrast to reliance and ask when it is warranted to talk about trust in AI and trustworthy AI. I shall show how trust and risk are related and what benefits and risks are associated with narrow and general AI. Also, I shall point out that metaphorical talk about ethically aligned AI ignores the real disagreements we have about ethical values.

Science and Engineering Ethics, 2018

This document presents the Bonn PRINTEGER Consensus Statement: Working with Research Integrity-Gu... more This document presents the Bonn PRINTEGER Consensus Statement: Working with Research Integrity-Guidance for research performing organisations. The aim of the statement is to complement existing instruments by focusing specifically on institutional responsibilities for strengthening integrity. It takes into account the daily challenges and organisational contexts of most researchers. The statement intends to make research integrity challenges recognisable from the work-floor perspective , providing concrete advice on organisational measures to strengthen integrity. The statement, which was concluded February 7th 2018, provides guidance on the following key issues: § 1. Providing information about research integrity § 2. Providing education, training and mentoring § 3. Strengthening a research integrity culture § 4. Facilitating open dialogue § 5. Wise incentive management § 6. Implementing quality assurance procedures § 7. Improving the work environment and work satisfaction § 8. Increasing transparency of misconduct cases § 9. Opening up research § 10. Implementing safe and effective whistle-blowing channels § 11. Protecting the alleged perpetrators § 12. Establishing a research integrity committee and appointing an ombudsperson § 13. Making explicit the applicable standards for research integrity Affiliations and contact information for all authors are given at the end of the article.

Margit Sutrop, Can Values be Taught? The Myth of Value-Free Education, Trames: Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences, 19:2, 189-202, 2015

The vocation of a teacher entails a multitude of high expectations. In addition to skills specifi... more The vocation of a teacher entails a multitude of high expectations. In addition to skills specific to the taught subject area and didactic methods, a teacher's professionalism includes being a values educator. It is in the power of teachers to spur students to become conscious of their values and give them skills to reflect on them. In order to urge students to reflect on and discuss their values, the teacher must first acquire the same skills. The main aim of this article is to show that values permeate every aspect of education and that value-free education is impossible. I shall first argue that in teacher education more emphasis should be placed on preparing teachers for their role as values educators. Secondly I shall show how a practical tool-the Teachers' Values Game-based on group discussions of moral dilemmas inherent in practical examples collected from real life can help teachers to recognize what their values are, to acquire skills of moral deliberation, to learn to argue and reach consensus.

Studia Philosophica Estonica, 2015

The purpose of this article is to inquire what should belong in an encyclopedia article entitled ... more The purpose of this article is to inquire what should belong in an encyclopedia article entitled "Estonian philosophy, " should one ever endeavour to write it. e question "What is Estonian philosophy?" has two parts. First we have to know what we mean by the concept philosophy and aer that how we would specify Estonian phi-losophy? Relying on a Wittgensteinian approach, I will argue that philosophy is an open concept. Although all philosophical works have some resemblances to other philosophical works, it is impossible to nd criteria characteristic of all the varieties of schools and traditions in which philosophizing is carried out. Philosophy should be understood as a certain social practice. ere can, however, be a large number of diierent practices. I will show that if by Estonian philosophy we have in mind a philosophy that is originally and purely Estonian, then at this point such does not exist. If by Estonian philosophy we mean philosophy created in Estonia, regardless of the practitioners' ethnicity and the language in which they wrote, the history of our philosophy is very rich and diverse. People of many diierent ethnicities have created philosophy in Estonia, articulating their philosophical ideas in Estonian, English, German, Latin, Russian, and Swedish. And if we broaden our concept of Estonian philosophy to also include the work of philosophers of Estonian extraction living abroad, then one could write quite a respectable article on the topic.

Deutsche Zeitschrift für Philosophie, 2014

This personal letter describes the history and current situation of philosophy in Estonia. We ske... more This personal letter describes the history and current situation of philosophy in Estonia. We sketch the development of academic philosophy since the foundation of Tartu University in 1632, and describe the current philosophical landscape. We discuss the challenges we are facing in trying to find a balance between the responsibility that a discipline in the humanties in a small country has with respect to local culture and society on the one hand, and our ambitions to build up an internationally collaborating department with an international graduate programme on the other. We close with a description of the relation between academic philosophy and Estonian society and the role that the Center for Ethics in Tartu plays in supporting that relation.

Margit Sutrop and Katrin Laas-Mikko, How Do Violations of Privacy and Moral Autonomy Threaten the Basis of Our Democracy?, Trames. Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences, 16 (4), 369-381, 2012

Behavior detection technologies are currently being developed to monitor and manage ma... more Behavior detection technologies are currently being developed to monitor and manage malintents and abnormal behavior from a distance in order to prevent terrorism and criminal attacks. We will show that serious ethical concerns are raised by capturing biometric features without informing people about the processing of their personal data. Our study of a range of European projects of second-generation biometrics, particularly of Intelligent information system supporting observation, searching and detection for security of citizens in urban environments (INDECT) and Automatic Detection of Abnormal Behaviour and Threats in crowded Spaces (ADABTS), shows that violations of privacy put several other values in jeopardy. We will argue that since privacy is in functional relationship with other values such as autonomy, liberty, equal treatment and trust, one should take this into account when limiting privacy for protecting our security. If indeed it should become necessary to restrict our privacy in specific situations, thoughtful consideration must be given to other ways of securing the values that form the foundation of our liberal democratic society.

Margit Sutrop and Katrin Laas-Mikko, From Identity Verification to Behavior Prediction: Ethical Implications of Second Generation Biometrics, Review of Policy Research, 29,1, 21-36, 2012

In this article, we will compare ethical issues raised by first and second generation biometrics.... more In this article, we will compare ethical issues raised by first and second generation biometrics. First generation biometrics use characteristics readily visible to the naked eye to ensure that the person identified is the person he claims to be, whereas second generation biometrics focus on behavioral patterns with the aim of predicting suspicious behavior or hostile intentions. While the collection of biometric features for identification is visible to the person involved, capturing biometric features from a distance may go unnoticed. Our study of a range of U.S. and European projects of second generation biometrics, particularly of Future Attribute Screening Technology and Automatic Detection of Abnormal Behaviour and Threats in crowded Spaces, shows that if data subjects are not aware of the processing of their data, and if behavioral patterns are interpreted without any knowledge of the subject's will and motives, there are risks of discrimination and stigmatization. Thus, second generation biometrics raise some new ethical concerns besides issues of integrity, privacy, and data protection and further underscore the importance of the principle of informed consent in order to maintain public trust.

Margit Sutrop, Viewpoint: How to avoid a dichotomy between autonomy and beneficence: from liberalism to communitarianism and beyond, Journal of Internal Medicine, 20, 4, 533-545., 2011

The history of medical ethics demonstrates how different values have been upheld at different t... more The history of medical ethics demonstrates how different values have been upheld at different times and how ethical frameworks have developed: how certain arguments have risen to prominence, while others have fallen into disrepute. The central values of the classical Hippocratic ethics were nonmaleficence (Do no harm!), beneficence and confidentiality. After World War II, medical ethics started to advocate patient autonomy in the guise of informed consent. However, over the last 20 years, there has been growing dissatisfaction with the individual rights-centred ethical framework.

Within clinical ethics, it has been noted that an obligation to respect the patient’s self-determination has worked against beneficence and trust and has thus done a great deal of damage to the doctor–patient relationship. The opinion that the rights-based ethics is not in the best interest of the patient and that patient care is best served by a
limited form of paternalism has been gathering support. The central moral concern of public health ethics is to specify the conditions that warrant paternatilistic interventions that override individual autonomy to prevent people from adopting unhealthy behaviours.

Likewise, in the context of research ethics, it has been argued that principles of individual autonomy and informed consent and privacy can seriously hamper medical research that aims to further the common good. It has become clear that prior, free, specifically informed and explicit consent may not be an achievable ideal in emergent research fields, such as biobank research. The need to develop new ethical frameworks focusing on more collective values, such as reciprocity, mutuality, solidarity, citizenry and universality, has been advocated. In the last two decades, there has been talk of the ‘communitarian turn’ in ethics.

The basic difference between liberal and communitarian ethical frameworks lies in the fact that liberalism claims that the individual is more important than the society in which he ⁄ she lives, whereas communitarianism regards society as more important
than the individual. Liberalism stresses rights, communitarianism the common good. In the traditional communitarian model, individual rights and interests are subordinate to the common good; however, the more recent neo-communitarian approach tries to balance individual rights with community interests.

Here, I will discuss the view that although autonomy and beneficence seem at times to be in conflict, there is no reason to see one or the other as predominant. A wider understanding of autonomy is crucial for understanding how to avoid a division between autonomy and beneficence.

Margit Sutrop and Kadri Simm, A Call for Contextualized Bioethics: Health, Biomedical Research, and Security. Guest Editorial, Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics, 20, 4, 2011

A decade has passed since the mapping of the human genome—an event that paved the way for many ne... more A decade has passed since the mapping of the human genome—an event that paved the way for many new developments in biomedicine and related fields. In ethics, this milestone was accompanied by calls for changes in ruling ethical frameworks.

Margit Sutrop, Changing Ethical Frameworks: From Individual Rights to the Common Good?, Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics, 20, 4, 533-545, 2011

Whereas in the 1970s early bioethicists believed that bioethics is an arena for the application o... more Whereas in the 1970s early bioethicists believed that bioethics is an arena for the application of philosophical theories of utilitarianism, deontology, and natural law thinking, contemporary policy-oriented bioethicists seem rather to be keen on framing ethical issues through political ideologies. Bioethicists today are often labeled “liberal” or “communitarian,” referring to their different understandings of the relationship between the individual and society. Liberal individualism, with its conceptual base of autonomy, dignity, and privacy, enjoyed a long period of dominance in bioethics, but it has increasingly come under attack from ideologies promoting a more salient role for concepts of solidarity, community, and public interest.

Chapters in Books Published by International Pub. by Margit Sutrop

Sutrop M., Lõuk K., Informed Consent and Ethical Research. In: Iphofen R. (eds) Handbook of Research Ethics and Scientific Integrity. Springer, Cham, 2020

Although today valid informed consent is considered key to ethical research, there is no agreemen... more Although today valid informed consent is considered key to ethical research, there is no agreement on what constitutes adequate informed consent. Problems ensue firstly from the circumstance that a principle adopted in one area of inquiry (biomedicine) cannot be extended literally to other areas of science. In addition, new areas of scholarly inquiry and changing research contexts contribute to the emergence of new forms of consent (open, broad, dynamic, meta-consent). A second difficulty derives from an overly narrow understanding of the concept of autonomy, resulting in an absolutizing of individual freedom and choices and relegating more collective values such as reciprocity, responsibility, and solidarity to the background.

In this chapter, we explain the origin of the concept of informed consent, what it consists of, and what forms it can take. We will then analyze what has caused shifts in the understanding of the informed consent principle: how much is due to advancements in science and technology and how much to changing ethical frameworks. Finally, we will show why it is important to develop a contextual approach by taking into account differences in research fields as well as types of research

Sutrop M., Parder ML., Juurik M. Research Ethics Codes and Guidelines. In: Iphofen R. (eds) Handbook of Research Ethics and Scientific Integrity. Springer, Cham, 2020

Although the origin of professional codes of ethics can be traced back to ancient Greece, their p... more Although the origin of professional codes of ethics can be traced back to ancient Greece, their peak was in the late twentieth century with more than 70% of codes of ethics being created after 1990. Today professional ethical standards are formulated as codes of ethics, sets of principles or guidelines, declarations, conventions, charters, or laws, and they differ in scope, form, and content. As there is no consensus on what is meant by “research ethics” and “research integrity,” both concepts are clarified here.

Codes of ethics for scientists are often written in reaction to misconduct cases. However, the sudden boom in codes of ethics is also related to growing pressures upon scientists and the conflicting duties they face. Solutions to the issue of vast number of codes and guidelines – creating a few universal general codes for research or harmonization of existing documents – are also both problematic. A universal code makes sacrifices on the level of content to gain acceptance internationally, and differences in values will continue to pose ethical dilemmas and conflict.

The main obstacles and solutions in order to make codes of ethics work better are highlighted. It is argued that the process of drafting codes of ethics should be inclusive. To engage people real-life cases should be discussed for clarifying implicit values. Implementation requires skills or moral discussion and substantiation of positions. Codes of ethics, the shared understanding of values should be sought within professions. Declared and actual values should be in coherence both in the leadership of the organization and organizational culture.

Margit Sutrop, What Role Do Emotions Play in Moral Disagreements, in Airaksinen, T. & Gasparski, W. W. (eds). Desire: The Concept and Its Practical Context. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers., 2016

In this article I expose the nature of emotional-based disagreements and suggest possible paths t... more In this article I expose the nature of emotional-based disagreements and suggest possible paths to take in order to resolve them. I show that since emotions lead one to see things in a particular way, which may be inappropriate, in certain cases it is necessary to change or correct emotions, that is, to revise one’s emotional repertoire. As much depends on how we understand emotions, I begin with the question what emotions are; what is their structure, and to what extent is it possible to speak of their rationality. I rely strongly on Peter Goldie’s theory of the narrative structure of emotions that seems to me to be offering new ways of understanding why some emotions play such an important role in moral disagreements.
On the example of some real-life cases (the moral permissibility of euthanasia, a public debate on the cohabitation law based on differing views on homosexual relationships) that that without understanding
the other person’s emotion and its narrative structure, it is impossible
to reach the core of the disagreement, not to mention resolving it.

Other Articles and Book Chapters in Eng and Ger by Margit Sutrop

Editing International Journal Special Issues and C by Margit Sutrop

Articles and Book Chapters in Estonian by Margit Sutrop

Edited Books in Estonian by Margit Sutrop

Papers by Margit Sutrop

Brill | mentis eBooks, Oct 11, 2008

Springer eBooks, 2020

Although today valid informed consent is considered key to ethical research, there is no agreemen... more Although today valid informed consent is considered key to ethical research, there is no agreement on what constitutes adequate informed consent. Problems ensue firstly from the circumstance that a principle adopted in one area of inquiry (biomedicine) cannot be extended literally to other areas of science. In addition, new areas of scholarly inquiry and changing research contexts contribute to the emergence of new forms of consent (open, broad, dynamic, meta-consent). A second difficulty derives from an overly narrow understanding of the concept of autonomy, resulting in an absolutizing of individual freedom and choices and relegating more collective values such as reciprocity, responsibility, and solidarity to the background. In this chapter, we explain the origin of the concept of informed consent, what it consists of, and what forms it can take. We will then analyze what has caused shifts in the understanding of the informed consent principle: how much is due to advancements in science and technology and how much to changing ethical frameworks. Finally, we will show why it is important to develop a contextual approach by taking into account differences in research fields as well as types of research

Challenges of Aligning AI with Human Values, 2000

As artificial intelligence (AI) systems are becoming increasingly autonomous and will soon be abl... more As artificial intelligence (AI) systems are becoming increasingly autonomous and will soon be able to make decisions on their own about what to do, AI researchers have started to talk about the need to align AI with human values. The AI 'value alignment problem' faces two kinds of challenges-a technical and a normative one-which are interrelated. The technical challenge deals with the question of how to encode human values in artificial intelligence. The normative challenge is associated with two questions: "Which values or whose values should artificial intelligence align with?" My concern is that AI developers underestimate the difficulty of answering the normative question. They hope that we can easily identify the purposes we really desire and that they can focus on the design of those objectives. But how are we to decide which objectives or values to induce in AI, given that there is a plurality of values and moral principles and that our everyday life is full of moral disagreements? In my paper I will show that although it is not realistic to reach an agreement on what we, humans, really want as people value different things and seek different ends, it may be possible to agree on what we do not want to happen, considering the possibility that intelligence, equal to our own, or even exceeding it, can be created. I will argue for pluralism (and not for relativism!) which is compatible with objectivism. In spite of the fact that there is no uniquely best solution to every moral problem, it is still possible to identify which answers are wrong. And this is where we should begin the value alignment of AI.

TRAMES, 2020, 24(74/69), 3, 295–314, 2020

We frequently find ourselves in intractable disagreements about the morality of abortion, euthana... more We frequently find ourselves in intractable disagreements about the morality of abortion, euthanasia, restrictions to freedom, or eating meat for fun. An adequate reaction to a disagreement requires knowing which type of disagreements we are confronted with. The main aim of my paper is to explain the source of moral disagreements and clarify their nature. I will argue that some moral disagreements are deep conceptual disagreements that similarly to disagreements in logic or ontology, are not resolvable, as the resolution of the disagreement requires the disputants to adopt perspectives that are conceptually unavailable to them. I will suggest four possible sources of moral disagreements: incommensurable fundamental values, different concepts of the good life, different motivating reasons and different concepts of morality.

Trames. A Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2020

This article provides an introduction to Estonian clinical ethics recommendations concerning the ... more This article provides an introduction to Estonian clinical ethics recommendations concerning the distribution of limited health care resources during the COVID-19 pandemic. We will give a short overview of the process of compiling the Estonian document, including stakeholder involvement, engagements with comparable international documents, main internal debates and lessons learned for the future.

Margit Sutrop, Adam Smith on sympathy and moral motivation, Acta Philosophica Fennica 83:143 - 168 , 2007

Margit Sutrop, Should we trust artificial intelligence? Trames : Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences, 23, 4, 499-522., 2019

Trust is believed to be a foundational cornerstone for artificial intelligence (AI). In April 201... more Trust is believed to be a foundational cornerstone for artificial intelligence (AI). In April 2019 the European Commission High Level Expert Group on AI adopted the Ethics Guidelines for Trustworthy AI, stressing that human beings will only be able to confidently and fully reap the benefits of AI if they can trust the technology. Trustworthy AI is defined as ethical, lawful and robust AI. Three things strike me about the EC Guidelines. Firstly, though building trust in AI seems to be a shared aim, it is not explicated what trust is, and how it can be built and maintained. Secondly, the Guidelines ignore the widespread distinction made in philosophical literature between trust and reliance. Thirdly, it is not clear how the values have been selected with which AI has to align and what would happen if they came into conflict. In this paper, I shall provide a conceptual analysis of trust in contrast to reliance and ask when it is warranted to talk about trust in AI and trustworthy AI. I shall show how trust and risk are related and what benefits and risks are associated with narrow and general AI. Also, I shall point out that metaphorical talk about ethically aligned AI ignores the real disagreements we have about ethical values.

Science and Engineering Ethics, 2018

This document presents the Bonn PRINTEGER Consensus Statement: Working with Research Integrity-Gu... more This document presents the Bonn PRINTEGER Consensus Statement: Working with Research Integrity-Guidance for research performing organisations. The aim of the statement is to complement existing instruments by focusing specifically on institutional responsibilities for strengthening integrity. It takes into account the daily challenges and organisational contexts of most researchers. The statement intends to make research integrity challenges recognisable from the work-floor perspective , providing concrete advice on organisational measures to strengthen integrity. The statement, which was concluded February 7th 2018, provides guidance on the following key issues: § 1. Providing information about research integrity § 2. Providing education, training and mentoring § 3. Strengthening a research integrity culture § 4. Facilitating open dialogue § 5. Wise incentive management § 6. Implementing quality assurance procedures § 7. Improving the work environment and work satisfaction § 8. Increasing transparency of misconduct cases § 9. Opening up research § 10. Implementing safe and effective whistle-blowing channels § 11. Protecting the alleged perpetrators § 12. Establishing a research integrity committee and appointing an ombudsperson § 13. Making explicit the applicable standards for research integrity Affiliations and contact information for all authors are given at the end of the article.

Margit Sutrop, Can Values be Taught? The Myth of Value-Free Education, Trames: Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences, 19:2, 189-202, 2015

The vocation of a teacher entails a multitude of high expectations. In addition to skills specifi... more The vocation of a teacher entails a multitude of high expectations. In addition to skills specific to the taught subject area and didactic methods, a teacher's professionalism includes being a values educator. It is in the power of teachers to spur students to become conscious of their values and give them skills to reflect on them. In order to urge students to reflect on and discuss their values, the teacher must first acquire the same skills. The main aim of this article is to show that values permeate every aspect of education and that value-free education is impossible. I shall first argue that in teacher education more emphasis should be placed on preparing teachers for their role as values educators. Secondly I shall show how a practical tool-the Teachers' Values Game-based on group discussions of moral dilemmas inherent in practical examples collected from real life can help teachers to recognize what their values are, to acquire skills of moral deliberation, to learn to argue and reach consensus.

Studia Philosophica Estonica, 2015

The purpose of this article is to inquire what should belong in an encyclopedia article entitled ... more The purpose of this article is to inquire what should belong in an encyclopedia article entitled "Estonian philosophy, " should one ever endeavour to write it. e question "What is Estonian philosophy?" has two parts. First we have to know what we mean by the concept philosophy and aer that how we would specify Estonian phi-losophy? Relying on a Wittgensteinian approach, I will argue that philosophy is an open concept. Although all philosophical works have some resemblances to other philosophical works, it is impossible to nd criteria characteristic of all the varieties of schools and traditions in which philosophizing is carried out. Philosophy should be understood as a certain social practice. ere can, however, be a large number of diierent practices. I will show that if by Estonian philosophy we have in mind a philosophy that is originally and purely Estonian, then at this point such does not exist. If by Estonian philosophy we mean philosophy created in Estonia, regardless of the practitioners' ethnicity and the language in which they wrote, the history of our philosophy is very rich and diverse. People of many diierent ethnicities have created philosophy in Estonia, articulating their philosophical ideas in Estonian, English, German, Latin, Russian, and Swedish. And if we broaden our concept of Estonian philosophy to also include the work of philosophers of Estonian extraction living abroad, then one could write quite a respectable article on the topic.

Deutsche Zeitschrift für Philosophie, 2014

This personal letter describes the history and current situation of philosophy in Estonia. We ske... more This personal letter describes the history and current situation of philosophy in Estonia. We sketch the development of academic philosophy since the foundation of Tartu University in 1632, and describe the current philosophical landscape. We discuss the challenges we are facing in trying to find a balance between the responsibility that a discipline in the humanties in a small country has with respect to local culture and society on the one hand, and our ambitions to build up an internationally collaborating department with an international graduate programme on the other. We close with a description of the relation between academic philosophy and Estonian society and the role that the Center for Ethics in Tartu plays in supporting that relation.

Margit Sutrop and Katrin Laas-Mikko, How Do Violations of Privacy and Moral Autonomy Threaten the Basis of Our Democracy?, Trames. Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences, 16 (4), 369-381, 2012

Behavior detection technologies are currently being developed to monitor and manage ma... more Behavior detection technologies are currently being developed to monitor and manage malintents and abnormal behavior from a distance in order to prevent terrorism and criminal attacks. We will show that serious ethical concerns are raised by capturing biometric features without informing people about the processing of their personal data. Our study of a range of European projects of second-generation biometrics, particularly of Intelligent information system supporting observation, searching and detection for security of citizens in urban environments (INDECT) and Automatic Detection of Abnormal Behaviour and Threats in crowded Spaces (ADABTS), shows that violations of privacy put several other values in jeopardy. We will argue that since privacy is in functional relationship with other values such as autonomy, liberty, equal treatment and trust, one should take this into account when limiting privacy for protecting our security. If indeed it should become necessary to restrict our privacy in specific situations, thoughtful consideration must be given to other ways of securing the values that form the foundation of our liberal democratic society.

Margit Sutrop and Katrin Laas-Mikko, From Identity Verification to Behavior Prediction: Ethical Implications of Second Generation Biometrics, Review of Policy Research, 29,1, 21-36, 2012

In this article, we will compare ethical issues raised by first and second generation biometrics.... more In this article, we will compare ethical issues raised by first and second generation biometrics. First generation biometrics use characteristics readily visible to the naked eye to ensure that the person identified is the person he claims to be, whereas second generation biometrics focus on behavioral patterns with the aim of predicting suspicious behavior or hostile intentions. While the collection of biometric features for identification is visible to the person involved, capturing biometric features from a distance may go unnoticed. Our study of a range of U.S. and European projects of second generation biometrics, particularly of Future Attribute Screening Technology and Automatic Detection of Abnormal Behaviour and Threats in crowded Spaces, shows that if data subjects are not aware of the processing of their data, and if behavioral patterns are interpreted without any knowledge of the subject's will and motives, there are risks of discrimination and stigmatization. Thus, second generation biometrics raise some new ethical concerns besides issues of integrity, privacy, and data protection and further underscore the importance of the principle of informed consent in order to maintain public trust.

Margit Sutrop, Viewpoint: How to avoid a dichotomy between autonomy and beneficence: from liberalism to communitarianism and beyond, Journal of Internal Medicine, 20, 4, 533-545., 2011

The history of medical ethics demonstrates how different values have been upheld at different t... more The history of medical ethics demonstrates how different values have been upheld at different times and how ethical frameworks have developed: how certain arguments have risen to prominence, while others have fallen into disrepute. The central values of the classical Hippocratic ethics were nonmaleficence (Do no harm!), beneficence and confidentiality. After World War II, medical ethics started to advocate patient autonomy in the guise of informed consent. However, over the last 20 years, there has been growing dissatisfaction with the individual rights-centred ethical framework.

Within clinical ethics, it has been noted that an obligation to respect the patient’s self-determination has worked against beneficence and trust and has thus done a great deal of damage to the doctor–patient relationship. The opinion that the rights-based ethics is not in the best interest of the patient and that patient care is best served by a
limited form of paternalism has been gathering support. The central moral concern of public health ethics is to specify the conditions that warrant paternatilistic interventions that override individual autonomy to prevent people from adopting unhealthy behaviours.

Likewise, in the context of research ethics, it has been argued that principles of individual autonomy and informed consent and privacy can seriously hamper medical research that aims to further the common good. It has become clear that prior, free, specifically informed and explicit consent may not be an achievable ideal in emergent research fields, such as biobank research. The need to develop new ethical frameworks focusing on more collective values, such as reciprocity, mutuality, solidarity, citizenry and universality, has been advocated. In the last two decades, there has been talk of the ‘communitarian turn’ in ethics.

The basic difference between liberal and communitarian ethical frameworks lies in the fact that liberalism claims that the individual is more important than the society in which he ⁄ she lives, whereas communitarianism regards society as more important
than the individual. Liberalism stresses rights, communitarianism the common good. In the traditional communitarian model, individual rights and interests are subordinate to the common good; however, the more recent neo-communitarian approach tries to balance individual rights with community interests.

Here, I will discuss the view that although autonomy and beneficence seem at times to be in conflict, there is no reason to see one or the other as predominant. A wider understanding of autonomy is crucial for understanding how to avoid a division between autonomy and beneficence.

Margit Sutrop and Kadri Simm, A Call for Contextualized Bioethics: Health, Biomedical Research, and Security. Guest Editorial, Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics, 20, 4, 2011

A decade has passed since the mapping of the human genome—an event that paved the way for many ne... more A decade has passed since the mapping of the human genome—an event that paved the way for many new developments in biomedicine and related fields. In ethics, this milestone was accompanied by calls for changes in ruling ethical frameworks.

Margit Sutrop, Changing Ethical Frameworks: From Individual Rights to the Common Good?, Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics, 20, 4, 533-545, 2011

Whereas in the 1970s early bioethicists believed that bioethics is an arena for the application o... more Whereas in the 1970s early bioethicists believed that bioethics is an arena for the application of philosophical theories of utilitarianism, deontology, and natural law thinking, contemporary policy-oriented bioethicists seem rather to be keen on framing ethical issues through political ideologies. Bioethicists today are often labeled “liberal” or “communitarian,” referring to their different understandings of the relationship between the individual and society. Liberal individualism, with its conceptual base of autonomy, dignity, and privacy, enjoyed a long period of dominance in bioethics, but it has increasingly come under attack from ideologies promoting a more salient role for concepts of solidarity, community, and public interest.

Sutrop M., Lõuk K., Informed Consent and Ethical Research. In: Iphofen R. (eds) Handbook of Research Ethics and Scientific Integrity. Springer, Cham, 2020

Although today valid informed consent is considered key to ethical research, there is no agreemen... more Although today valid informed consent is considered key to ethical research, there is no agreement on what constitutes adequate informed consent. Problems ensue firstly from the circumstance that a principle adopted in one area of inquiry (biomedicine) cannot be extended literally to other areas of science. In addition, new areas of scholarly inquiry and changing research contexts contribute to the emergence of new forms of consent (open, broad, dynamic, meta-consent). A second difficulty derives from an overly narrow understanding of the concept of autonomy, resulting in an absolutizing of individual freedom and choices and relegating more collective values such as reciprocity, responsibility, and solidarity to the background.

In this chapter, we explain the origin of the concept of informed consent, what it consists of, and what forms it can take. We will then analyze what has caused shifts in the understanding of the informed consent principle: how much is due to advancements in science and technology and how much to changing ethical frameworks. Finally, we will show why it is important to develop a contextual approach by taking into account differences in research fields as well as types of research

Sutrop M., Parder ML., Juurik M. Research Ethics Codes and Guidelines. In: Iphofen R. (eds) Handbook of Research Ethics and Scientific Integrity. Springer, Cham, 2020

Although the origin of professional codes of ethics can be traced back to ancient Greece, their p... more Although the origin of professional codes of ethics can be traced back to ancient Greece, their peak was in the late twentieth century with more than 70% of codes of ethics being created after 1990. Today professional ethical standards are formulated as codes of ethics, sets of principles or guidelines, declarations, conventions, charters, or laws, and they differ in scope, form, and content. As there is no consensus on what is meant by “research ethics” and “research integrity,” both concepts are clarified here.

Codes of ethics for scientists are often written in reaction to misconduct cases. However, the sudden boom in codes of ethics is also related to growing pressures upon scientists and the conflicting duties they face. Solutions to the issue of vast number of codes and guidelines – creating a few universal general codes for research or harmonization of existing documents – are also both problematic. A universal code makes sacrifices on the level of content to gain acceptance internationally, and differences in values will continue to pose ethical dilemmas and conflict.

The main obstacles and solutions in order to make codes of ethics work better are highlighted. It is argued that the process of drafting codes of ethics should be inclusive. To engage people real-life cases should be discussed for clarifying implicit values. Implementation requires skills or moral discussion and substantiation of positions. Codes of ethics, the shared understanding of values should be sought within professions. Declared and actual values should be in coherence both in the leadership of the organization and organizational culture.

Margit Sutrop, What Role Do Emotions Play in Moral Disagreements, in Airaksinen, T. & Gasparski, W. W. (eds). Desire: The Concept and Its Practical Context. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers., 2016

In this article I expose the nature of emotional-based disagreements and suggest possible paths t... more In this article I expose the nature of emotional-based disagreements and suggest possible paths to take in order to resolve them. I show that since emotions lead one to see things in a particular way, which may be inappropriate, in certain cases it is necessary to change or correct emotions, that is, to revise one’s emotional repertoire. As much depends on how we understand emotions, I begin with the question what emotions are; what is their structure, and to what extent is it possible to speak of their rationality. I rely strongly on Peter Goldie’s theory of the narrative structure of emotions that seems to me to be offering new ways of understanding why some emotions play such an important role in moral disagreements.
On the example of some real-life cases (the moral permissibility of euthanasia, a public debate on the cohabitation law based on differing views on homosexual relationships) that that without understanding
the other person’s emotion and its narrative structure, it is impossible
to reach the core of the disagreement, not to mention resolving it.

Brill | mentis eBooks, Oct 11, 2008

Springer eBooks, 2020

Although today valid informed consent is considered key to ethical research, there is no agreemen... more Although today valid informed consent is considered key to ethical research, there is no agreement on what constitutes adequate informed consent. Problems ensue firstly from the circumstance that a principle adopted in one area of inquiry (biomedicine) cannot be extended literally to other areas of science. In addition, new areas of scholarly inquiry and changing research contexts contribute to the emergence of new forms of consent (open, broad, dynamic, meta-consent). A second difficulty derives from an overly narrow understanding of the concept of autonomy, resulting in an absolutizing of individual freedom and choices and relegating more collective values such as reciprocity, responsibility, and solidarity to the background. In this chapter, we explain the origin of the concept of informed consent, what it consists of, and what forms it can take. We will then analyze what has caused shifts in the understanding of the informed consent principle: how much is due to advancements in science and technology and how much to changing ethical frameworks. Finally, we will show why it is important to develop a contextual approach by taking into account differences in research fields as well as types of research

Brill | mentis eBooks, Oct 11, 2008

Springer eBooks, 2020

Although today valid informed consent is considered key to ethical research, there is no agreemen... more Although today valid informed consent is considered key to ethical research, there is no agreement on what constitutes adequate informed consent. Problems ensue firstly from the circumstance that a principle adopted in one area of inquiry (biomedicine) cannot be extended literally to other areas of science. In addition, new areas of scholarly inquiry and changing research contexts contribute to the emergence of new forms of consent (open, broad, dynamic, meta-consent). A second difficulty derives from an overly narrow understanding of the concept of autonomy, resulting in an absolutizing of individual freedom and choices and relegating more collective values such as reciprocity, responsibility, and solidarity to the background. In this chapter, we explain the origin of the concept of informed consent, what it consists of, and what forms it can take. We will then analyze what has caused shifts in the understanding of the informed consent principle: how much is due to advancements in science and technology and how much to changing ethical frameworks. Finally, we will show why it is important to develop a contextual approach by taking into account differences in research fields as well as types of research

Acta Baltica Historiae et Philosophiae Scientiarum, Dec 10, 2020

Cambridge University Press eBooks, Apr 19, 2007

Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 2010

Journal of Internal Medicine, Mar 15, 2011

Deutsche Zeitschrift für Philosophie, 2014

This personal letter describes the history and current situation of philosophy in Estonia. We ske... more This personal letter describes the history and current situation of philosophy in Estonia. We sketch the development of academic philosophy since the foundation of Tartu University in 1632, and describe the current philosophical landscape. We discuss the challenges we are facing in trying to find a balance between the responsibility that a discipline in the humanties in a small country has with respect to local culture and society on the one hand, and our ambitions to build up an internationally collaborating department with an international graduate programme on the other. We close with a description of the relation between academic philosophy and Estonian society and the role that the Center for Ethics in Tartu plays in supporting that relation.

Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics, Aug 16, 2011

Philosophy and Literature, 1994

RefDoc, THE reference in scientific document supply / Refdoc, la référence en fourniture de docum... more RefDoc, THE reference in scientific document supply / Refdoc, la référence en fourniture de documents scientifiques ...