Carol A . Carman | University of Texas, Medical Branch at Galveston (original) (raw)
Papers by Carol A . Carman
Clinical laboratory, 2021
BACKGROUND The failure to order the correct diagnostic test at the right time is one of the major... more BACKGROUND The failure to order the correct diagnostic test at the right time is one of the major contributing factors of diagnostic error. Excessive testing can lead to added economic burden and addressing underutilization is precarious as clinicians often fail to order the tests that would improve diagnosis, prognosis, and management. METHODS A retrospective analysis of errors in test orders of thyroid function testing (TFT) in 321 pregnant women suspected of clinical and subclinical thyroid disorders was performed. Test selection was evaluated, and determinations were made about the extent of overutilization and underutilization of TFTs in reviewing each individual patient case by a Doctorate in Clinical Laboratory Science (DCLS) scholar. RESULTS About 77% (247 cases) of the cases were found to have errors associated with test ordering for TFT. Of the cases reviewed, 18% cases were associated with overutilization, 53% of the cases were associated with underutilization, and 7% wer...
Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 2022
Community colleges serve the most diverse student populations in higher education yet have some o... more Community colleges serve the most diverse student populations in higher education yet have some of the lowest levels of faculty diversity in higher education. Retaining community college student cohorts through transfer/graduation is a goal, yet attaining this goal has been elusive, particularly for underrepresented minority (URM) community college students. Few studies have explored the impact of faculty diversity on the successful retention of URM community college students. This study used archival data for 120 public community colleges from the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) to calculate a Diversity Score for each college and ranked them by their overall level of faculty racial/ethnic variance to quantify the relationship between faculty diversity and student graduation, transfer, and drop-out rates. The findings suggest that there is a significant strong positive relationship between graduation, transfer, and drop-out rates for URM students of all race/ethnic categories when there are increases in faculty diversity. Exposure to a diverse faculty produces different outcomes in URM students.
The Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test (K-BIT) is designed for use as a quick intelligence test for ... more The Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test (K-BIT) is designed for use as a quick intelligence test for individuals aged 4 years through adulthood. The K-BIT measures both verbal and nonverbal intelligence, yielding Vocabulary, Matrices, and IQ composite scores. The test is easy to administer, and questions are scored objectively, making it easy for examiners who lack formal training in intelligence assessment to score the test. Data from the standardization sample and data in support of content, construct, and concurrent validity are all presented in the K-BIT manual. Because of the small sample size of the population aged 20 to 90 used in norming the test, it is recommended that scores for that population be interpreted cautiously. (SLD) Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document.
Gifted Child Quarterly, 2020
The two most commonly used nonverbal tests for gifted identification, the Naglieri Nonverbal Abil... more The two most commonly used nonverbal tests for gifted identification, the Naglieri Nonverbal Ability Test (NNAT) and the Cognitive Abilities Test (CogAT) nonverbal battery, have not been compared in their newer versions to explore the effects of their use on the identification of underserved populations. Additionally, the effects of the use of various norming groups and cutoff scores on both instruments’ identification abilities has not been compared. This study compared 15,733 CogAT7
nonverbal battery scores and 14,421 NNAT2 scores of kindergartners between 2013 and 2015 from one large urban school district to explore the differences between how each test relates to major demographic variables and examine the effects on who is selected for participation in gifted programming based on which instrument, which norming group, and which cutoff scores are used. Both instruments were less likely to identify students from demographic groups that have been traditionally
underrepresented than students from traditionally overrepresented demographic groups, but identification varied based on the type of norming plan used and which instrument was taken. Suggestions are made as to the best instrument for use with various demographic groups and norming plans.
Intercultural Education, 2018
This study examines the relationship between faculty racial/ ethnic diversity and graduation rate... more This study examines the relationship between faculty racial/
ethnic diversity and graduation rates of undergraduate
students, in particular those from underrepresented racial
and ethnic minority populations. Using IPEDS data, the
researchers calculated a Diversity Score for each institution.
Findings suggest U.S. faculty diversity is lower than in
the U.S. national population. Overall graduation rates for
underrepresented minority students of all races/ethnicities
are positively affected by increased diversity of their faculty.
Gifted Child Quarterly, 2018
The nonverbal battery of the Cognitive Abilities Test (CogAT) is one of the two most common nonve... more The nonverbal battery of the Cognitive Abilities Test (CogAT) is one of the two most common nonverbal measures used in gifted identification, yet the relationships between demographic variables and CogAT7 performance has not yet been fully examined. Additionally, the effect of using the CogAT7 nonverbal battery on the identification of diverse demographic groups based on various norming, cutoff, and modifier plans has only just begun to be explored. In this study, we analyzed
the CogAT7 nonverbal battery scores of kindergartners from a very large urban school district with a high minority, low socioeconomic status, and high English language learner population to determine the relationships between demographic variables and CogAT performance. The results suggest relationships between CogAT scores and multiple demographic
variables, similar to other nonverbal instruments. We also examined the effects of various norming practices, including school-level and group-specific norming, on identification using the CogAT7 nonverbal battery.
National Forum of Teacher Education Journal, 2013
Researchers have called for greater levels of teacher preparation. There remains many questions a... more Researchers have called for greater levels of teacher preparation. There remains many questions about the extent to which graduate education contributes in a positive way to student achievement. The purpose for this research was to ascertain the extent to which teacher graduate degrees contribute to student math achievement as measured by Texas state math exams. Results of this research demonstrated master's degrees have only a limited positive impact on student math achievement. Further study is recommended.
This paper presented a significant problem in the field of research on the gifted and talent... more This paper presented a significant problem in the field of research on the gifted and talented. Traditional methods for the identification of gifted individuals, including intelligence and achievement measures do not always correctly identify every gifted individual. Identification could be made more accurate with the addition of other identification areas. One often overlooked area for identification is personality measures. Literature of the field was reviewed to clarify the identification problem. The two research questions examined were:
1. Are there relationships between scores on the Sensory Profile and traditional measures of giftedness?
2. Are there relationships between scores on the OEQII and the Sensory Profile?
Four hypotheses were proposed:
Hypothesis 1: Scores on the Sensory Profile will correlate with intelligence
scores and achievement.
Hypothesis 2: Scores on the Sensory Profile will correlate with scores on the
Overexcitability Questionnaire II.
Hypothesis 3: A model consisting of four latent variables (Overexcitability
Questionnaire II, Sensory Profile, intelligence test scores, achievement scores)
defined by the scores on their related tests will demonstrate good fit with
empirically collected data.
Hypothesis 4: There will be strong metric invariance between the gifted and non-
gifted groups on the proposed model.
Methods for exploring the hypotheses were discussed. Confirmatory factor analysis and multi-group analyses were performed. Discussion of the hypotheses, the limitations of the study, and of future directions for research was conducted.
All four hypotheses were supported, although some hypotheses were supported more strongly than others. Scores on the Sensory Profile were weakly correlated with intelligence and achievement scores. Scores on the Sensory Profile were moderately correlated with scores on the Overexcitability Questionnaire II. A model consisting of four latent variables (Overexcitability Questionnaire II, Sensory Profile, intelligence test scores, achievement scores) defined by the scores on their related tests demonstrated adequate fit with empirically collected data. There was strict metric invariance between the gifted and non-gifted groups on the proposed model.
Evidence supporting both convergent and divergent validity between the four latent factors was found as a result of the analyses. Further research should be done to examine the validity of the Sensory Profile for use in identifying gifted individuals.
Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 2017
Previous research has found a positive relationship between students who had completed a sequenc... more Previous research has found a positive relationship between students who had
completed a sequence of developmental reading and writing courses and
success in a reading-intensive college-level course. This study replicates and
expands upon the previous research of Goldstein and Perin (2008) by utilizing a
differently diverse sample and an additional literacy-demanding course in an
attempt to broaden the findings. Binary logistic regression and multiple regression
analyses were performed on data gathered from a large urban community
college. The purpose was to predict success and performance—from literacy,
demographic, and academic variables—in two literacy-demanding courses,
psychology and geography. A number of variables, including literacy skill level,
positively predicted successful grades in the courses. This study found that
students who had originally tested into a developmental reading and/or writing
course upon entrance into a community college and had taken the sequence of
developmental courses prior to taking a content course were more successful
than students who had placed into a developmental course, but had not taken
the developmental sequence. These findings also suggest the more literacy skills
a student has gained through completion of higher levels of English courses, the
more likely the student will successfully complete a content course in which
those skills are required.
Aasa Journal of Scholarship Practice, 2014
In a time of limited means and continued calls for higher student achievement, school leaders nee... more In a time of limited means and continued calls for higher student achievement, school leaders need to be wise in their use of resources. Earlier research has called for greater levels of teacher preparation, and, while many school districts provide greater compensation for teachers with graduate degrees, some districts have begun phasing out this type of compensation. Complicating the question of the value of compensating teachers for graduate training is an absence of quantitative data that supports or rejects the concept that teacher graduate education positively contributes to student achievement. The purpose for this research was to ascertain the degree to which teacher graduate training supports student reading achievement. Results of this research demonstrated master’s degrees have a limited positive impact on student reading achievement. However, more study is needed.
Teaching of Psychology, 2017
One method to increase flexibility in class offerings is through the use of compressed courses, c... more One method to increase flexibility in class offerings is through the use of compressed courses, classes that have the same number of contact hours but over a shorter time period (e.g., 8 weeks vs. 15 weeks). Before offering these courses, it is important to
determine whether they lead to equivalent or better student outcomes. This study examined 11 traditional-length and 8 compressed sections of the same graduate-level statistics course. Results indicated students in the compressed class scored significantly
higher on both the third exam and final course grade. Student course evaluations were also significantly higher in the compressed courses. Graduate students rated traditional-length and compressed courses similar in difficulty. Implications for course offerings are discussed.
Education and Urban Society, 2016
While studies have shown the positive effect of the Advanced Placement (AP) program on college r... more While studies have shown the positive effect of the Advanced Placement
(AP) program on college readiness, there are still barriers preventing
minority and low socioeconomic status (SES) students who possess high
academic potential from participating in the opportunity that AP courses
offer. One tool that could help identify students for participation in AP
courses is their Preliminary Scholastic Aptitude Test (PSAT) results. Results
from multiple regression analyses suggest that portions of the PSAT are
significant predictors of AP test performance above and beyond student
ethnicity and/or SES.
Encyclopedia of Giftedness, Creativity, and Talent, 2009
Encyclopedia of Research Design, 2010
Encyclopedia of Research Design, 2010
Roeper Review, 2003
Page 1. Recent Dissertation Research in Gifted Studies Roeper Review Dissertation Section Editor,... more Page 1. Recent Dissertation Research in Gifted Studies Roeper Review Dissertation Section Editor, Judith A. Margison If you are interested in submitting a dissertation abstract, please send a copy of the abstract (200-300 words ...
Encyclopedia of Research Design, 2010
Journal of Advanced Academics, 2013
The lack of a unified definition of giftedness leads researchers to use very different operationa... more The lack of a unified definition of giftedness leads researchers to use very different operationalizations when selecting a sample of gifted individuals for use in research. We found 74 empirical articles from 21 journals that differentiated between gifted and nongifted students which were analyzed to determine the most common methods of identifying individuals in research. Results of the analysis show a lack of consensus as to what qualifies a person to be defined as gifted for the purposes of research. This lack of consensus leads to lower generalizability of research about giftedness and to an inability for researchers in the field to compare results of studies. An agreed-upon unified definition of giftedness for the purposes of research will lead to a more homogeneous group of participants, which in turn would lead to multiple benefits, including higher external validity in research designs.
Education and Urban Society, 2012
In the performance driven culture of education today, though arguments regarding the definition o... more In the performance driven culture of education today, though arguments regarding the definition of student success abound, few argue its importance. This issue is complicated with an additional dimension for those who are learning English as a second language. For those students who lack proficiency in the English language, academic content must be learned concurrently with the acquisition of the English language. The issue of language acquisition became part of the national education dialogue with the Supreme Court Decision Lau v. Nichols in 1974. It has continued to be a serious issue throughout the country and particularly in the southeast region of Texas. This article will examine how English language learners (ELLs) are assessed. Specifically, it will focus on the relationship between the standardized academic exam administered to almost all students in Texas and the language acquisition exam for reading administered to almost all ELL students in the state. Further, this article will examine the results of a regression analysis performed to determine the predictive value of using raw scores on the reading test for ELLs to predict raw scores on the standardized academic exam taken by those students at grades 3, 5 and 8 in the same academic year.
Clinical laboratory, 2021
BACKGROUND The failure to order the correct diagnostic test at the right time is one of the major... more BACKGROUND The failure to order the correct diagnostic test at the right time is one of the major contributing factors of diagnostic error. Excessive testing can lead to added economic burden and addressing underutilization is precarious as clinicians often fail to order the tests that would improve diagnosis, prognosis, and management. METHODS A retrospective analysis of errors in test orders of thyroid function testing (TFT) in 321 pregnant women suspected of clinical and subclinical thyroid disorders was performed. Test selection was evaluated, and determinations were made about the extent of overutilization and underutilization of TFTs in reviewing each individual patient case by a Doctorate in Clinical Laboratory Science (DCLS) scholar. RESULTS About 77% (247 cases) of the cases were found to have errors associated with test ordering for TFT. Of the cases reviewed, 18% cases were associated with overutilization, 53% of the cases were associated with underutilization, and 7% wer...
Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 2022
Community colleges serve the most diverse student populations in higher education yet have some o... more Community colleges serve the most diverse student populations in higher education yet have some of the lowest levels of faculty diversity in higher education. Retaining community college student cohorts through transfer/graduation is a goal, yet attaining this goal has been elusive, particularly for underrepresented minority (URM) community college students. Few studies have explored the impact of faculty diversity on the successful retention of URM community college students. This study used archival data for 120 public community colleges from the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) to calculate a Diversity Score for each college and ranked them by their overall level of faculty racial/ethnic variance to quantify the relationship between faculty diversity and student graduation, transfer, and drop-out rates. The findings suggest that there is a significant strong positive relationship between graduation, transfer, and drop-out rates for URM students of all race/ethnic categories when there are increases in faculty diversity. Exposure to a diverse faculty produces different outcomes in URM students.
The Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test (K-BIT) is designed for use as a quick intelligence test for ... more The Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test (K-BIT) is designed for use as a quick intelligence test for individuals aged 4 years through adulthood. The K-BIT measures both verbal and nonverbal intelligence, yielding Vocabulary, Matrices, and IQ composite scores. The test is easy to administer, and questions are scored objectively, making it easy for examiners who lack formal training in intelligence assessment to score the test. Data from the standardization sample and data in support of content, construct, and concurrent validity are all presented in the K-BIT manual. Because of the small sample size of the population aged 20 to 90 used in norming the test, it is recommended that scores for that population be interpreted cautiously. (SLD) Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document.
Gifted Child Quarterly, 2020
The two most commonly used nonverbal tests for gifted identification, the Naglieri Nonverbal Abil... more The two most commonly used nonverbal tests for gifted identification, the Naglieri Nonverbal Ability Test (NNAT) and the Cognitive Abilities Test (CogAT) nonverbal battery, have not been compared in their newer versions to explore the effects of their use on the identification of underserved populations. Additionally, the effects of the use of various norming groups and cutoff scores on both instruments’ identification abilities has not been compared. This study compared 15,733 CogAT7
nonverbal battery scores and 14,421 NNAT2 scores of kindergartners between 2013 and 2015 from one large urban school district to explore the differences between how each test relates to major demographic variables and examine the effects on who is selected for participation in gifted programming based on which instrument, which norming group, and which cutoff scores are used. Both instruments were less likely to identify students from demographic groups that have been traditionally
underrepresented than students from traditionally overrepresented demographic groups, but identification varied based on the type of norming plan used and which instrument was taken. Suggestions are made as to the best instrument for use with various demographic groups and norming plans.
Intercultural Education, 2018
This study examines the relationship between faculty racial/ ethnic diversity and graduation rate... more This study examines the relationship between faculty racial/
ethnic diversity and graduation rates of undergraduate
students, in particular those from underrepresented racial
and ethnic minority populations. Using IPEDS data, the
researchers calculated a Diversity Score for each institution.
Findings suggest U.S. faculty diversity is lower than in
the U.S. national population. Overall graduation rates for
underrepresented minority students of all races/ethnicities
are positively affected by increased diversity of their faculty.
Gifted Child Quarterly, 2018
The nonverbal battery of the Cognitive Abilities Test (CogAT) is one of the two most common nonve... more The nonverbal battery of the Cognitive Abilities Test (CogAT) is one of the two most common nonverbal measures used in gifted identification, yet the relationships between demographic variables and CogAT7 performance has not yet been fully examined. Additionally, the effect of using the CogAT7 nonverbal battery on the identification of diverse demographic groups based on various norming, cutoff, and modifier plans has only just begun to be explored. In this study, we analyzed
the CogAT7 nonverbal battery scores of kindergartners from a very large urban school district with a high minority, low socioeconomic status, and high English language learner population to determine the relationships between demographic variables and CogAT performance. The results suggest relationships between CogAT scores and multiple demographic
variables, similar to other nonverbal instruments. We also examined the effects of various norming practices, including school-level and group-specific norming, on identification using the CogAT7 nonverbal battery.
National Forum of Teacher Education Journal, 2013
Researchers have called for greater levels of teacher preparation. There remains many questions a... more Researchers have called for greater levels of teacher preparation. There remains many questions about the extent to which graduate education contributes in a positive way to student achievement. The purpose for this research was to ascertain the extent to which teacher graduate degrees contribute to student math achievement as measured by Texas state math exams. Results of this research demonstrated master's degrees have only a limited positive impact on student math achievement. Further study is recommended.
This paper presented a significant problem in the field of research on the gifted and talent... more This paper presented a significant problem in the field of research on the gifted and talented. Traditional methods for the identification of gifted individuals, including intelligence and achievement measures do not always correctly identify every gifted individual. Identification could be made more accurate with the addition of other identification areas. One often overlooked area for identification is personality measures. Literature of the field was reviewed to clarify the identification problem. The two research questions examined were:
1. Are there relationships between scores on the Sensory Profile and traditional measures of giftedness?
2. Are there relationships between scores on the OEQII and the Sensory Profile?
Four hypotheses were proposed:
Hypothesis 1: Scores on the Sensory Profile will correlate with intelligence
scores and achievement.
Hypothesis 2: Scores on the Sensory Profile will correlate with scores on the
Overexcitability Questionnaire II.
Hypothesis 3: A model consisting of four latent variables (Overexcitability
Questionnaire II, Sensory Profile, intelligence test scores, achievement scores)
defined by the scores on their related tests will demonstrate good fit with
empirically collected data.
Hypothesis 4: There will be strong metric invariance between the gifted and non-
gifted groups on the proposed model.
Methods for exploring the hypotheses were discussed. Confirmatory factor analysis and multi-group analyses were performed. Discussion of the hypotheses, the limitations of the study, and of future directions for research was conducted.
All four hypotheses were supported, although some hypotheses were supported more strongly than others. Scores on the Sensory Profile were weakly correlated with intelligence and achievement scores. Scores on the Sensory Profile were moderately correlated with scores on the Overexcitability Questionnaire II. A model consisting of four latent variables (Overexcitability Questionnaire II, Sensory Profile, intelligence test scores, achievement scores) defined by the scores on their related tests demonstrated adequate fit with empirically collected data. There was strict metric invariance between the gifted and non-gifted groups on the proposed model.
Evidence supporting both convergent and divergent validity between the four latent factors was found as a result of the analyses. Further research should be done to examine the validity of the Sensory Profile for use in identifying gifted individuals.
Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 2017
Previous research has found a positive relationship between students who had completed a sequenc... more Previous research has found a positive relationship between students who had
completed a sequence of developmental reading and writing courses and
success in a reading-intensive college-level course. This study replicates and
expands upon the previous research of Goldstein and Perin (2008) by utilizing a
differently diverse sample and an additional literacy-demanding course in an
attempt to broaden the findings. Binary logistic regression and multiple regression
analyses were performed on data gathered from a large urban community
college. The purpose was to predict success and performance—from literacy,
demographic, and academic variables—in two literacy-demanding courses,
psychology and geography. A number of variables, including literacy skill level,
positively predicted successful grades in the courses. This study found that
students who had originally tested into a developmental reading and/or writing
course upon entrance into a community college and had taken the sequence of
developmental courses prior to taking a content course were more successful
than students who had placed into a developmental course, but had not taken
the developmental sequence. These findings also suggest the more literacy skills
a student has gained through completion of higher levels of English courses, the
more likely the student will successfully complete a content course in which
those skills are required.
Aasa Journal of Scholarship Practice, 2014
In a time of limited means and continued calls for higher student achievement, school leaders nee... more In a time of limited means and continued calls for higher student achievement, school leaders need to be wise in their use of resources. Earlier research has called for greater levels of teacher preparation, and, while many school districts provide greater compensation for teachers with graduate degrees, some districts have begun phasing out this type of compensation. Complicating the question of the value of compensating teachers for graduate training is an absence of quantitative data that supports or rejects the concept that teacher graduate education positively contributes to student achievement. The purpose for this research was to ascertain the degree to which teacher graduate training supports student reading achievement. Results of this research demonstrated master’s degrees have a limited positive impact on student reading achievement. However, more study is needed.
Teaching of Psychology, 2017
One method to increase flexibility in class offerings is through the use of compressed courses, c... more One method to increase flexibility in class offerings is through the use of compressed courses, classes that have the same number of contact hours but over a shorter time period (e.g., 8 weeks vs. 15 weeks). Before offering these courses, it is important to
determine whether they lead to equivalent or better student outcomes. This study examined 11 traditional-length and 8 compressed sections of the same graduate-level statistics course. Results indicated students in the compressed class scored significantly
higher on both the third exam and final course grade. Student course evaluations were also significantly higher in the compressed courses. Graduate students rated traditional-length and compressed courses similar in difficulty. Implications for course offerings are discussed.
Education and Urban Society, 2016
While studies have shown the positive effect of the Advanced Placement (AP) program on college r... more While studies have shown the positive effect of the Advanced Placement
(AP) program on college readiness, there are still barriers preventing
minority and low socioeconomic status (SES) students who possess high
academic potential from participating in the opportunity that AP courses
offer. One tool that could help identify students for participation in AP
courses is their Preliminary Scholastic Aptitude Test (PSAT) results. Results
from multiple regression analyses suggest that portions of the PSAT are
significant predictors of AP test performance above and beyond student
ethnicity and/or SES.
Encyclopedia of Giftedness, Creativity, and Talent, 2009
Encyclopedia of Research Design, 2010
Encyclopedia of Research Design, 2010
Roeper Review, 2003
Page 1. Recent Dissertation Research in Gifted Studies Roeper Review Dissertation Section Editor,... more Page 1. Recent Dissertation Research in Gifted Studies Roeper Review Dissertation Section Editor, Judith A. Margison If you are interested in submitting a dissertation abstract, please send a copy of the abstract (200-300 words ...
Encyclopedia of Research Design, 2010
Journal of Advanced Academics, 2013
The lack of a unified definition of giftedness leads researchers to use very different operationa... more The lack of a unified definition of giftedness leads researchers to use very different operationalizations when selecting a sample of gifted individuals for use in research. We found 74 empirical articles from 21 journals that differentiated between gifted and nongifted students which were analyzed to determine the most common methods of identifying individuals in research. Results of the analysis show a lack of consensus as to what qualifies a person to be defined as gifted for the purposes of research. This lack of consensus leads to lower generalizability of research about giftedness and to an inability for researchers in the field to compare results of studies. An agreed-upon unified definition of giftedness for the purposes of research will lead to a more homogeneous group of participants, which in turn would lead to multiple benefits, including higher external validity in research designs.
Education and Urban Society, 2012
In the performance driven culture of education today, though arguments regarding the definition o... more In the performance driven culture of education today, though arguments regarding the definition of student success abound, few argue its importance. This issue is complicated with an additional dimension for those who are learning English as a second language. For those students who lack proficiency in the English language, academic content must be learned concurrently with the acquisition of the English language. The issue of language acquisition became part of the national education dialogue with the Supreme Court Decision Lau v. Nichols in 1974. It has continued to be a serious issue throughout the country and particularly in the southeast region of Texas. This article will examine how English language learners (ELLs) are assessed. Specifically, it will focus on the relationship between the standardized academic exam administered to almost all students in Texas and the language acquisition exam for reading administered to almost all ELL students in the state. Further, this article will examine the results of a regression analysis performed to determine the predictive value of using raw scores on the reading test for ELLs to predict raw scores on the standardized academic exam taken by those students at grades 3, 5 and 8 in the same academic year.