Raymond Bertram | University of Turku (original) (raw)

Papers by Raymond Bertram

Research paper thumbnail of The role of interword spacing in reading Japanese: An eye movement study

Vision research, Jan 1, 2007

The present study investigated the role of interword spacing in a naturally unspaced language, Ja... more The present study investigated the role of interword spacing in a naturally unspaced language, Japanese. Eye movements were registered of native Japanese readers reading pure Hiragana (syllabic) and mixed Kanji-Hiragana (ideographic and syllabic) text in spaced and unspaced conditions. Interword spacing facilitated both word identification and eye guidance when reading syllabic script, but not when the script contained ideographic characters. We conclude that in reading Hiragana interword spacing serves as an effective segmentation cue. In contrast, spacing information in mixed Kanji-Hiragana text is redundant, since the visually salient Kanji characters serve as effective segmentation cues by themselves.

Research paper thumbnail of Affixal salience and the processing of derivational morphology: The role of suffix allomorphy

Language and Cognitive Processes, 2006

This study explores the relevance of suffix allomorphy for processing complex words. The question... more This study explores the relevance of suffix allomorphy for processing complex words. The question is whether structural invariance of the morphological category (i.e., lack of allomorphy) would affect the processing of Finnish derived words. A series of four visual lexical decision experiments in which alternatively surface and base frequency was manipulated showed that the two invariant suffixes, namely denominal -stO and deadjectival -hkO, showed reliable effects of base frequency, whereas for the two categories with suffix allomorphy, deverbal -Us and deadjectival -(U)Us, only surface frequency played a role. A further experiment showed that even with the most frequent variant of -(U)Us, namely -Ude-, response latencies were a function of surface frequency only. It is shown that neither the results from the experiments here nor previous findings from processing Finnish words can be accounted for by suffix frequency, the frequency ratio between the derived word and its base, or morphological productivity in any straightforward manner. We conclude that the lack of allomorphy, that is, structural invariance, significantly adds to affixal salience and therefore enhances morphological decomposition. The implications of this finding for models of lexical processing are discussed.

Research paper thumbnail of Counterintuitive cross-linguistic differences: More morphological computation in English than in Finnish

Journal of psycholinguistic …, 2002

This study investigates the role of derivational morphology in lexical processing in two typologi... more This study investigates the role of derivational morphology in lexical processing in two typologi-cally quite different languages: Finnish and English. While Finnish is a language with an extremely rich morphology, English morphology is relatively poor. Consequently, the ...

Research paper thumbnail of Ambiguous Pronoun Resolution

Psychological Science, 2005

... A visual-world eye-tracking experiment investigated the influence of order of mention and gra... more ... A visual-world eye-tracking experiment investigated the influence of order of mention and grammatical role ... used both order-of-mention and grammatical-role information to resolveambiguous pronouns. ... feature of understanding texts is the ability to resolve co-reference relations ...

Research paper thumbnail of Semantic processing of previews within compound words.

Journal of Experimental …, Jan 1, 2008

Previous studies have suggested that previews of words prior to fixation can be processed orthogr... more Previous studies have suggested that previews of words prior to fixation can be processed orthographically, but not semantically, during reading of sentences ). The present study tested whether semantic processing of previews can occur within words. The preview of the second constituent of 2-constituent Finnish compound nouns was manipulated. The previews were either identical to the 2nd constituent or they were incorrect in the form of a semantically related word, a semantically unrelated word, or a semantically meaningless nonword. The results indicate that previews of 2nd constituents within compound words can be semantically processed. The results have important implications for understanding the nature of preview and compound word processing. These issues are crucial to developing comprehensive models of eye-movement control and word recognition during reading.

Research paper thumbnail of Counterintuitive Cross-Linguistic Differences: More Morphological Computation in English Than in Finnish

This study investigates the role of derivational morphology in lexical processing in two typologi... more This study investigates the role of derivational morphology in lexical processing in two typologically quite different languages: Finnish and English. While Finnish is a language with an extremely rich morphology, English morphology is relatively poor. Consequently, the role of morphology in storing and processing words would be expected to be greater in Finnish than in English. With a series of visual lexical decision experiments in both languages, we find that the opposite is the case for derivational morphology: for English, parsing of morphological constituents is often required, whereas for Finnish, full-form storage and access seems to be the rule. We try to explain this counterintuitive finding by making an appeal to the lexical-statistical properties of both languages.

Research paper thumbnail of Ambiguous Pronoun Resolution: Contrasting the First-Mention and Subject Preference Accounts

A visual-world eye-tracking experiment investigated the influence of order of mention and grammat... more A visual-world eye-tracking experiment investigated the influence of order of mention and grammatical role on resolution of ambiguous pronouns in Finnish. According to the first-mention account, general cognitive structure-building processes make the first-mentioned noun phrase the preferred antecedent of an ambiguous pronoun. According to the subject-preference account, the preferred antecedent is the grammatical subject of the preceding clause or sentence. Participants listened to sentences in either subject-verb-object or object-verb-subject order; each was followed by a sentence containing an ambiguous pronoun that referred to either the subject or the object. Participants' eye movements were monitored while they looked at pictures representing the two possible antecedents of each pronoun. Analyses of the fixations on the pictures showed that listeners used both order-of-mention and grammatical-role information to resolve ambiguous pronouns.

Research paper thumbnail of Affixal homonymy triggers full-form storage, even with inflected words, even in a morphologically rich language

Research paper thumbnail of The role of morphological constituents in reading Finnish compound words.

Journal of Experimental …, Jan 1, 2000

The processing of transparent Finnish compound words was investigated in 2 experiments in which e... more The processing of transparent Finnish compound words was investigated in 2 experiments in which eye movements were recorded while sentences were read silently. The frequency of the second constituent had a large influence (95 ms) on gaze duration on the target words, but its influence was relatively late in processing: A clear effect only occurred on the probability of a third fixation. The frequency of the whole compound word had a similar influence on gaze duration (82 ms) and influenced eye movements at least as rapidly as did the frequency of the second constituent. These results, together with an earlier finding that the frequency of the first constituent affected the first fixation duration, indicate that the identification of these compound words involves parallel processing of both morphological constituents and whole-word representations.

Research paper thumbnail of The role of syllables in lexical access during elementary school years

Research paper thumbnail of Identifying compound words in reading: An overview and a model

Cognitive Processes in Eye Guidance, 2005

Research paper thumbnail of Cascaded processing in written compound word production

Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 2015

In this study we investigated the intricate interplay between central linguistic processing and p... more In this study we investigated the intricate interplay between central linguistic processing and peripheral motor processes during typewriting. Participants had to typewrite two-constituent (noun-noun) Finnish compounds in response to picture presentation while their typing behavior was registered. As dependent measures we used writing onset time to assess what processes were completed before writing and inter-key intervals to assess what processes were going on during writing. It was found that writing onset time was determined by whole word frequency rather than constituent frequencies, indicating that compound words are retrieved as whole orthographic units before writing is initiated. In addition, we found that the length of the first syllable also affects writing onset time, indicating that the first syllable is fully prepared before writing commences. The inter-key interval results showed that linguistic planning is not fully ready before writing, but cascades into the motor execution phase. More specifically, inter-key intervals were largest at syllable and morpheme boundaries, supporting the view that additional linguistic planning takes place at these boundaries. Bigram and trigram frequency also affected inter-key intervals with shorter intervals corresponding to higher frequencies. This can be explained by stronger memory traces for frequently co-occurring letter sequences in the motor memory for typewriting. These frequency effects were even larger in the second than in the first constituent, indicating that low-level motor memory starts to become more important during the course of writing compound words. We discuss our results in the light of current models of morphological processing and written word production.

Research paper thumbnail of Counterintuitive cross-linguistic differences: More morphological computation in English than in Finnish

Journal of psycholinguistic research, 2002

This study investigates the role of derivational morphology in lexical processing in two typologi... more This study investigates the role of derivational morphology in lexical processing in two typologically quite different languages: Finnish and English. While Finnish is a language with an extremely rich morphology, English morphology is relatively poor. Consequently, the role of morphology in storing and processing words would be expected to be greater in Finnish than in English. With a series of visual lexical decision experiments in both languages, we find that the opposite is the case for derivational morphology: for English, parsing of morphological constituents is often required, whereas for Finnish, full-form storage and access seems to be the rule. We try to explain this counterintuitive finding by making an appeal to the lexical-statistical properties of both languages.

Research paper thumbnail of Word processing and the optimal viewing position

Research paper thumbnail of Ambiguous Pronoun Resolution Contrasting the First-Mention and Subject-Preference Accounts

A visual-world eye-tracking experiment investigated the influence of order of mention and grammat... more A visual-world eye-tracking experiment investigated the influence of order of mention and grammatical role on resolution of ambiguous pronouns in Finnish. According to the first-mention account, general cognitive structure-building processes make the first-mentioned noun phrase the preferred antecedent of an ambiguous pronoun. According to the subject-preference account, the preferred antecedent is the grammatical subject of the preceding clause or sentence. Participants listened to sentences in either subject-verb-object or object-verb-subject order; each was followed by a sentence containing an ambiguous pronoun that referred to either the subject or the object. Participants' eye movements were monitored while they looked at pictures representing the two possible antecedents of each pronoun. Analyses of the fixations on the pictures showed that listeners used both order-of-mention and grammatical-role information to resolve ambiguous pronouns.

Research paper thumbnail of The Effect of Expertise on Eye Movement Behaviour in Medical Image Perception

The present eye-movement study assessed the effect of expertise on eye-movement behaviour during ... more The present eye-movement study assessed the effect of expertise on eye-movement behaviour during image perception in the medical domain. To this end, radiologists, computed-tomography radiographers and psychology students were exposed to nine volumes of multi-slice, stack-view, axial computed-tomography images from the upper to the lower part of the abdomen with or without abnormality. The images were presented in succession at low, medium or high speed, while the participants had to detect enlarged lymph nodes or other visually more salient abnormalities. The radiologists outperformed both other groups in the detection of enlarged lymph nodes and their eye-movement behaviour also differed from the other groups. Their general strategy was to use saccades of shorter amplitude than the two other participant groups. In the presence of enlarged lymph nodes, they increased the number of fixations on the relevant areas and reverted to even shorter saccades. In volumes containing enlarged lymph nodes, radiologists' fixation durations were longer in comparison to their fixation durations in volumes without enlarged lymph nodes. More salient abnormalities were detected equally well by radiologists and radiographers, with both groups outperforming psychology students. However, to accomplish this, radiologists actually needed fewer fixations on the relevant areas than the radiographers. On the basis of these results, we argue that expert behaviour is manifested in distinct eye-movement patterns of proactivity, reactivity and suppression, depending on the nature of the task and the presence of abnormalities at any given moment.

Research paper thumbnail of The role of interword spacing in reading Japanese: An eye movement study

Vision Research, 2007

The present study investigated the role of interword spacing in a naturally unspaced language, Ja... more The present study investigated the role of interword spacing in a naturally unspaced language, Japanese. Eye movements were registered of native Japanese readers reading pure Hiragana (syllabic) and mixed Kanji-Hiragana (ideographic and syllabic) text in spaced and unspaced conditions. Interword spacing facilitated both word identification and eye guidance when reading syllabic script, but not when the script contained ideographic characters. We conclude that in reading Hiragana interword spacing serves as an effective segmentation cue. In contrast, spacing information in mixed Kanji-Hiragana text is redundant, since the visually salient Kanji characters serve as effective segmentation cues by themselves.

Research paper thumbnail of Optimal viewing position effects in reading Finnish

Vision Research, 2011

The present study examined effects of the initial landing position in words on eye behavior durin... more The present study examined effects of the initial landing position in words on eye behavior during reading of long and short Finnish compound words. The study replicated OVP and IOVP effects previously found in French, German and English -languages structurally distinct from Finnish, suggesting that the effects generalize across structurally different alphabetic languages. The results are consistent with the view that the landing position effects appear at the prelexical stage of word processing, as landing position effects were not modulated by word frequency. Moreover, the OVP effects are in line with a visuomotor explanation making recourse to visual acuity constraints.

Research paper thumbnail of Eye movements and morphological processing in reading

Research paper thumbnail of The role of derivational morphology in vocabulary acquisition: Get by with a little help from my morpheme friends

Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 2000

Bertram, R., Laine, M. & Virkkala, M. M. (2000). The role of derivational morphology in vocabular... more Bertram, R., Laine, M. & Virkkala, M. M. (2000). The role of derivational morphology in vocabulary acquisition: Get by with a little help from my morpheme friends. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 41, 287±296.

Research paper thumbnail of The role of interword spacing in reading Japanese: An eye movement study

Vision research, Jan 1, 2007

The present study investigated the role of interword spacing in a naturally unspaced language, Ja... more The present study investigated the role of interword spacing in a naturally unspaced language, Japanese. Eye movements were registered of native Japanese readers reading pure Hiragana (syllabic) and mixed Kanji-Hiragana (ideographic and syllabic) text in spaced and unspaced conditions. Interword spacing facilitated both word identification and eye guidance when reading syllabic script, but not when the script contained ideographic characters. We conclude that in reading Hiragana interword spacing serves as an effective segmentation cue. In contrast, spacing information in mixed Kanji-Hiragana text is redundant, since the visually salient Kanji characters serve as effective segmentation cues by themselves.

Research paper thumbnail of Affixal salience and the processing of derivational morphology: The role of suffix allomorphy

Language and Cognitive Processes, 2006

This study explores the relevance of suffix allomorphy for processing complex words. The question... more This study explores the relevance of suffix allomorphy for processing complex words. The question is whether structural invariance of the morphological category (i.e., lack of allomorphy) would affect the processing of Finnish derived words. A series of four visual lexical decision experiments in which alternatively surface and base frequency was manipulated showed that the two invariant suffixes, namely denominal -stO and deadjectival -hkO, showed reliable effects of base frequency, whereas for the two categories with suffix allomorphy, deverbal -Us and deadjectival -(U)Us, only surface frequency played a role. A further experiment showed that even with the most frequent variant of -(U)Us, namely -Ude-, response latencies were a function of surface frequency only. It is shown that neither the results from the experiments here nor previous findings from processing Finnish words can be accounted for by suffix frequency, the frequency ratio between the derived word and its base, or morphological productivity in any straightforward manner. We conclude that the lack of allomorphy, that is, structural invariance, significantly adds to affixal salience and therefore enhances morphological decomposition. The implications of this finding for models of lexical processing are discussed.

Research paper thumbnail of Counterintuitive cross-linguistic differences: More morphological computation in English than in Finnish

Journal of psycholinguistic …, 2002

This study investigates the role of derivational morphology in lexical processing in two typologi... more This study investigates the role of derivational morphology in lexical processing in two typologi-cally quite different languages: Finnish and English. While Finnish is a language with an extremely rich morphology, English morphology is relatively poor. Consequently, the ...

Research paper thumbnail of Ambiguous Pronoun Resolution

Psychological Science, 2005

... A visual-world eye-tracking experiment investigated the influence of order of mention and gra... more ... A visual-world eye-tracking experiment investigated the influence of order of mention and grammatical role ... used both order-of-mention and grammatical-role information to resolveambiguous pronouns. ... feature of understanding texts is the ability to resolve co-reference relations ...

Research paper thumbnail of Semantic processing of previews within compound words.

Journal of Experimental …, Jan 1, 2008

Previous studies have suggested that previews of words prior to fixation can be processed orthogr... more Previous studies have suggested that previews of words prior to fixation can be processed orthographically, but not semantically, during reading of sentences ). The present study tested whether semantic processing of previews can occur within words. The preview of the second constituent of 2-constituent Finnish compound nouns was manipulated. The previews were either identical to the 2nd constituent or they were incorrect in the form of a semantically related word, a semantically unrelated word, or a semantically meaningless nonword. The results indicate that previews of 2nd constituents within compound words can be semantically processed. The results have important implications for understanding the nature of preview and compound word processing. These issues are crucial to developing comprehensive models of eye-movement control and word recognition during reading.

Research paper thumbnail of Counterintuitive Cross-Linguistic Differences: More Morphological Computation in English Than in Finnish

This study investigates the role of derivational morphology in lexical processing in two typologi... more This study investigates the role of derivational morphology in lexical processing in two typologically quite different languages: Finnish and English. While Finnish is a language with an extremely rich morphology, English morphology is relatively poor. Consequently, the role of morphology in storing and processing words would be expected to be greater in Finnish than in English. With a series of visual lexical decision experiments in both languages, we find that the opposite is the case for derivational morphology: for English, parsing of morphological constituents is often required, whereas for Finnish, full-form storage and access seems to be the rule. We try to explain this counterintuitive finding by making an appeal to the lexical-statistical properties of both languages.

Research paper thumbnail of Ambiguous Pronoun Resolution: Contrasting the First-Mention and Subject Preference Accounts

A visual-world eye-tracking experiment investigated the influence of order of mention and grammat... more A visual-world eye-tracking experiment investigated the influence of order of mention and grammatical role on resolution of ambiguous pronouns in Finnish. According to the first-mention account, general cognitive structure-building processes make the first-mentioned noun phrase the preferred antecedent of an ambiguous pronoun. According to the subject-preference account, the preferred antecedent is the grammatical subject of the preceding clause or sentence. Participants listened to sentences in either subject-verb-object or object-verb-subject order; each was followed by a sentence containing an ambiguous pronoun that referred to either the subject or the object. Participants' eye movements were monitored while they looked at pictures representing the two possible antecedents of each pronoun. Analyses of the fixations on the pictures showed that listeners used both order-of-mention and grammatical-role information to resolve ambiguous pronouns.

Research paper thumbnail of Affixal homonymy triggers full-form storage, even with inflected words, even in a morphologically rich language

Research paper thumbnail of The role of morphological constituents in reading Finnish compound words.

Journal of Experimental …, Jan 1, 2000

The processing of transparent Finnish compound words was investigated in 2 experiments in which e... more The processing of transparent Finnish compound words was investigated in 2 experiments in which eye movements were recorded while sentences were read silently. The frequency of the second constituent had a large influence (95 ms) on gaze duration on the target words, but its influence was relatively late in processing: A clear effect only occurred on the probability of a third fixation. The frequency of the whole compound word had a similar influence on gaze duration (82 ms) and influenced eye movements at least as rapidly as did the frequency of the second constituent. These results, together with an earlier finding that the frequency of the first constituent affected the first fixation duration, indicate that the identification of these compound words involves parallel processing of both morphological constituents and whole-word representations.

Research paper thumbnail of The role of syllables in lexical access during elementary school years

Research paper thumbnail of Identifying compound words in reading: An overview and a model

Cognitive Processes in Eye Guidance, 2005

Research paper thumbnail of Cascaded processing in written compound word production

Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 2015

In this study we investigated the intricate interplay between central linguistic processing and p... more In this study we investigated the intricate interplay between central linguistic processing and peripheral motor processes during typewriting. Participants had to typewrite two-constituent (noun-noun) Finnish compounds in response to picture presentation while their typing behavior was registered. As dependent measures we used writing onset time to assess what processes were completed before writing and inter-key intervals to assess what processes were going on during writing. It was found that writing onset time was determined by whole word frequency rather than constituent frequencies, indicating that compound words are retrieved as whole orthographic units before writing is initiated. In addition, we found that the length of the first syllable also affects writing onset time, indicating that the first syllable is fully prepared before writing commences. The inter-key interval results showed that linguistic planning is not fully ready before writing, but cascades into the motor execution phase. More specifically, inter-key intervals were largest at syllable and morpheme boundaries, supporting the view that additional linguistic planning takes place at these boundaries. Bigram and trigram frequency also affected inter-key intervals with shorter intervals corresponding to higher frequencies. This can be explained by stronger memory traces for frequently co-occurring letter sequences in the motor memory for typewriting. These frequency effects were even larger in the second than in the first constituent, indicating that low-level motor memory starts to become more important during the course of writing compound words. We discuss our results in the light of current models of morphological processing and written word production.

Research paper thumbnail of Counterintuitive cross-linguistic differences: More morphological computation in English than in Finnish

Journal of psycholinguistic research, 2002

This study investigates the role of derivational morphology in lexical processing in two typologi... more This study investigates the role of derivational morphology in lexical processing in two typologically quite different languages: Finnish and English. While Finnish is a language with an extremely rich morphology, English morphology is relatively poor. Consequently, the role of morphology in storing and processing words would be expected to be greater in Finnish than in English. With a series of visual lexical decision experiments in both languages, we find that the opposite is the case for derivational morphology: for English, parsing of morphological constituents is often required, whereas for Finnish, full-form storage and access seems to be the rule. We try to explain this counterintuitive finding by making an appeal to the lexical-statistical properties of both languages.

Research paper thumbnail of Word processing and the optimal viewing position

Research paper thumbnail of Ambiguous Pronoun Resolution Contrasting the First-Mention and Subject-Preference Accounts

A visual-world eye-tracking experiment investigated the influence of order of mention and grammat... more A visual-world eye-tracking experiment investigated the influence of order of mention and grammatical role on resolution of ambiguous pronouns in Finnish. According to the first-mention account, general cognitive structure-building processes make the first-mentioned noun phrase the preferred antecedent of an ambiguous pronoun. According to the subject-preference account, the preferred antecedent is the grammatical subject of the preceding clause or sentence. Participants listened to sentences in either subject-verb-object or object-verb-subject order; each was followed by a sentence containing an ambiguous pronoun that referred to either the subject or the object. Participants' eye movements were monitored while they looked at pictures representing the two possible antecedents of each pronoun. Analyses of the fixations on the pictures showed that listeners used both order-of-mention and grammatical-role information to resolve ambiguous pronouns.

Research paper thumbnail of The Effect of Expertise on Eye Movement Behaviour in Medical Image Perception

The present eye-movement study assessed the effect of expertise on eye-movement behaviour during ... more The present eye-movement study assessed the effect of expertise on eye-movement behaviour during image perception in the medical domain. To this end, radiologists, computed-tomography radiographers and psychology students were exposed to nine volumes of multi-slice, stack-view, axial computed-tomography images from the upper to the lower part of the abdomen with or without abnormality. The images were presented in succession at low, medium or high speed, while the participants had to detect enlarged lymph nodes or other visually more salient abnormalities. The radiologists outperformed both other groups in the detection of enlarged lymph nodes and their eye-movement behaviour also differed from the other groups. Their general strategy was to use saccades of shorter amplitude than the two other participant groups. In the presence of enlarged lymph nodes, they increased the number of fixations on the relevant areas and reverted to even shorter saccades. In volumes containing enlarged lymph nodes, radiologists' fixation durations were longer in comparison to their fixation durations in volumes without enlarged lymph nodes. More salient abnormalities were detected equally well by radiologists and radiographers, with both groups outperforming psychology students. However, to accomplish this, radiologists actually needed fewer fixations on the relevant areas than the radiographers. On the basis of these results, we argue that expert behaviour is manifested in distinct eye-movement patterns of proactivity, reactivity and suppression, depending on the nature of the task and the presence of abnormalities at any given moment.

Research paper thumbnail of The role of interword spacing in reading Japanese: An eye movement study

Vision Research, 2007

The present study investigated the role of interword spacing in a naturally unspaced language, Ja... more The present study investigated the role of interword spacing in a naturally unspaced language, Japanese. Eye movements were registered of native Japanese readers reading pure Hiragana (syllabic) and mixed Kanji-Hiragana (ideographic and syllabic) text in spaced and unspaced conditions. Interword spacing facilitated both word identification and eye guidance when reading syllabic script, but not when the script contained ideographic characters. We conclude that in reading Hiragana interword spacing serves as an effective segmentation cue. In contrast, spacing information in mixed Kanji-Hiragana text is redundant, since the visually salient Kanji characters serve as effective segmentation cues by themselves.

Research paper thumbnail of Optimal viewing position effects in reading Finnish

Vision Research, 2011

The present study examined effects of the initial landing position in words on eye behavior durin... more The present study examined effects of the initial landing position in words on eye behavior during reading of long and short Finnish compound words. The study replicated OVP and IOVP effects previously found in French, German and English -languages structurally distinct from Finnish, suggesting that the effects generalize across structurally different alphabetic languages. The results are consistent with the view that the landing position effects appear at the prelexical stage of word processing, as landing position effects were not modulated by word frequency. Moreover, the OVP effects are in line with a visuomotor explanation making recourse to visual acuity constraints.

Research paper thumbnail of Eye movements and morphological processing in reading

Research paper thumbnail of The role of derivational morphology in vocabulary acquisition: Get by with a little help from my morpheme friends

Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 2000

Bertram, R., Laine, M. & Virkkala, M. M. (2000). The role of derivational morphology in vocabular... more Bertram, R., Laine, M. & Virkkala, M. M. (2000). The role of derivational morphology in vocabulary acquisition: Get by with a little help from my morpheme friends. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 41, 287±296.